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Introduction: HPV self-sampling is a relatively new, cost-effective and widely accepted method, however, uptake in LMICs remains limited. We aimed to map out the evidence and identify gaps in accuracy, acceptability, cost, equity and uptake of self-sampling vs. provider-sampling in LMICs., Methods: We searched: MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Global Index Medicus, from 1946 to July 2023. Inclusion criteria entailed studies focusing on self-sampling alone or compared to provider-sampling for HPV testing and reporting on at least one outcome of interest (accuracy, acceptability, cost, equity, or uptake). Two authors independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts, resolving disagreements through discussion. Data was extracted by one reviewer independently, with quality checks by senior authors, and results were synthesised narratively., Results: Our search yielded 3,739 records, with 124 studies conducted on 164,165 women aged 15-88 years between 2000 and 2023 included. Most studies were from the African region ( n  = 61, 49.2%). Designs included cross-sectional ( n  = 90, 81.1%), randomised ( n  = 5, 4.5%), modelling ( n  = 4, 3.6%), micro-costing ( n  = 2, 1.8%), and non-randomised crossover ( n  = 1, 0.9%) studies. Outcomes included; acceptability ( n  = 79, 63.7%), accuracy ( n  = 51, 41.1%), cost ( n  = 7, 5.6%), and uptake ( n  = 7, 5.6%). Most studies reported that participants preferred self-sampling, with only a few studies ( n  = 7, 8.9%) studies favouring provider-sampling. The sensitivity and specificity of self-sampling ranged from 37.5-96.8% and 41.6-100.0%, respectively. One study directly compared the sensitivity and specificity of dry self-collected vs. wet provider-collected sample transportation. Laboratory costs were similar, but overall costs were lower for self-sampling. Uptake was higher for self-sampling in five of the seven studies. Most studies ( n  = 106) mentioned equity factors like age ( n  = 69, 65.1%), education ( n  = 68, 64.2%) and place of residence ( n  = 59, 55.6%) but no analysis of their impact was provided., Conclusion: HPV self-sampling is acceptable and cost-effective but, evidence of its accuracy shows varying sensitivity and specificity. Evidence on the accuracy of dry self-collected vs. wet provider-collected sample transportation is limited. Research evaluating HPV self-sampling's accuracy, including comparisons of transportation modes, uptake, the impact of equity factors in LMICs and comparisons with high-income countries is essential to inform cervical cancer screening uptake., Systematic Review Registration: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/34TUY., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Otieno, Were, Nyanchoka, Olwanda, Mulaku, Sem, Kohli, Markby, Muriuki and Ochodo.)

Objective: To perform critical methodological assessments on designs, outcomes, quality and implementation limitations of studies evaluating the impact of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs) on patient-important outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa., Design: A systematic review of study methods., Data Sources: MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, African Index Medicus and clinical trial registries were searched up to May 2022., Eligibility Criteria: Primary quantitative studies that compared mRDTs to alternative diagnostic tests for malaria on patient-important outcomes within sub-Sahara Africa., Data Extraction and Synthesis: Studies were sought by an information specialist and two independent reviewers screened for eligible records and extracted data using a predesigned form using Covidence. Methodological quality was assessed using the National Institutes of Health tools. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis guided by the Supporting the Use of Research Evidence framework were used for analysis. Findings were presented narratively, graphically and by quality ratings., Results: Our search yielded 4717 studies, of which we included 24 quantitative studies; (15, 62.5%) experimental, (5, 20.8%) quasi-experimental and (4, 16.7%) observational studies. Most studies (17, 70.8%) were conducted within government-owned facilities. Of the 24 included studies, (21, 87.5%) measured the therapeutic impact of mRDTs. Prescription patterns were the most reported outcome (20, 83.3%). Only (13, 54.2%) of all studies reported statistically significant findings, in which (11, 45.8%) demonstrated mRDTs' potential to reduce over-prescription of antimalarials. Most studies (17, 70.8%) were of good methodological quality; however, reporting sample size justification needs improvement. Implementation limitations reported were mostly about health system constraints, the unacceptability of the test by the patients and low trust among health providers., Conclusion: Impact evaluations of mRDTs in sub-Saharan Africa are mostly randomised trials measuring mRDTs' effect on therapeutic outcomes in real-life settings. Though their methodological quality remains good, process evaluations can be incorporated to assess how contextual concerns influence their interpretation and implementation., Prospero Registration Number: CRD42018083816., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Multiple, accelerating and interacting ecological crises are increasingly understood as constituting a major threat to human health and well-being. Unconstrained economic growth is strongly implicated in these growing crises, and it has been argued that this growth has now become "uneconomic growth", which is a situation where the size of the economy is still expanding, but this expansion is causing more harm than benefit. This article summarises the multiple pathways by which uneconomic growth can be expected to harm human health. It describes how health care systems-especially through overuse, low value and poor quality care-can themselves drive uneconomic growth. Health economists need to understand not only the consequences of environmental impacts on health care, but also the significance of uneconomic growth, and pay closer attention to the growing body of work by heterodox economists, especially in the fields of ecological and feminist economics. This will involve paying closer heed to the existence and consequences of diminishing marginal returns to health care consumption at high levels; the central importance of inequalities and injustice in health; and the need to remedy health economists' currently limited ability to deal effectively with low value care, overdiagnosis and overtreatment., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

In October 2021, the WHO recommended the world's first malaria vaccine-RTS,S/AS01-to prevent malaria in children living in areas with moderate-to-high transmission in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). A second malaria vaccine, R21/Matrix-M, was recommended for use in October 2023 and added to the WHO list of prequalified vaccines in December 2023. This study analysis assessed the country status of implementation and delivery strategies for RTS,S/AS01 by searching websites for national malaria policies, guidelines and related documents. Direct contact with individuals working in malaria programmes was made to obtain documents not publicly available. 10 countries had documents with information relating to malaria vaccine implementation, 7 referencing RTS,S/AS01 and 3 (Burkina Faso, Kenya and Nigeria) referencing RTS,S/AS01 and R21/Matrix-M. Five other countries reported plans for malaria vaccine roll-out without specifying which vaccine. Ghana, Kenya and Malawi, which piloted RTS,S/AS01, have now integrated the vaccine into routine immunisation services. Cameroon and Burkina Faso are the first countries outside the pilot countries to incorporate the vaccine into national immunisation services. Uganda plans a phased RTS,S/AS01 introduction, while Guinea plans to first pilot RTS,S/AS01 in five districts. The RTS,S/AS01 schedule varied by country, with the first dose administered at 5 or 6 months in all countries but the fourth dose at either 18, 22 or 24 months. SSA countries have shown widespread interest in rolling out the malaria vaccine, the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization having approved financial support for 20 of 30 countries which applied as of March 2024. Limited availability of RTS,S/AS01 means that some approved countries will not receive the required doses. Vaccine availability and equity must be addressed even as R21/Matrix-M becomes available., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Background: Computer-aided detection (CAD) may be a useful screening tool for tuberculosis (TB). However, there are limited data about its utility in active case finding (ACF) in a community-based setting, and particularly in an HIV-endemic setting where performance may be compromised., Methods: We performed a systematic review and evaluated articles published between January 2012 and February 2023 that included CAD as a screening tool to detect pulmonary TB against a microbiological reference standard (sputum culture and/or nucleic acid amplification test [NAAT]). We collected and summarized data on study characteristics and diagnostic accuracy measures. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality against Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2 criteria. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Diagnostic Test Accuracy Studies (PRISMA-DTA) guidelines were followed., Results: Of 1748 articles reviewed, 5 met with the eligibility criteria and were included in this review. A meta-analysis revealed pooled sensitivity of 0.87 (95% CI, 0.78-0.96) and specificity of 0.74 (95% CI, 0.55-0.93), just below the World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended target product profile (TPP) for a screening test (sensitivity ≥0.90 and specificity ≥0.70). We found a high risk of bias and applicability concerns across all studies. Subgroup analyses, including the impact of HIV and previous TB, were not possible due to the nature of the reporting within the included studies., Conclusions: This review provides evidence, specifically in the context of ACF, for CAD as a potentially useful and cost-effective screening tool for TB in a resource-poor HIV-endemic African setting. However, given methodological concerns, caution is required with regards to applicability and generalizability., Competing Interests: Potential conflicts of interest. All authors: no reported conflicts., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Infectious Diseases Society of America.)

Background: Since 2018, over 14 million people have been treated for tuberculosis (TB) globally. However, pre-treatment loss to follow-up (PTLFU) has been shown to contribute substantially to patient losses in the TB care cascade with subsequent high community transmission and mortality rates., Objective: To identify, appraise, and synthesise evidence on the perspectives of patients and healthcare workers on factors contributing to PTLFU in adults with pulmonary TB., Methods: We registered the title with PROSPERO (CRD42021253212). We searched nine relevant databases up to 24 May 2021 for qualitative studies. Two review authors independently reviewed records for eligibility and extracted data. We assessed methodological quality with the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information Centre tool and synthesised data using the Supporting the Use of Research Evidence framework. We assessed confidence in our findings using Confidence in the Evidence from Reviews of Qualitative Research (GRADE-CERQual)., Results: We reviewed a total of 1239 records and included five studies, all from low- and middle-income countries. Key themes reported by patients and healthcare workers were communication challenges among healthcare workers and between healthcare workers and patients; knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours about TB and its management; accessibility and availability of facilities for TB care; and human resource and financial constraints, weakness in management and leadership in TB programmes. Patients' change of residence, long waiting times, and poor referral systems were additional factors that contributed to patients disengaging from care. We had moderate confidence in most of our findings., Conclusion: Findings from our qualitative evidence synthesis highlight multiple factors that contribute to PTLFU. Central to addressing these factors will be the need to strengthen health systems and offer people-centred care.

Importance: Overuse of surgical procedures is increasing around the world and harms both individuals and health care systems by using resources that could otherwise be allocated to addressing the underuse of effective health care interventions. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), there is some limited country-specific evidence showing that overuse of surgical procedures is increasing, at least for certain procedures., Objectives: To assess factors associated with, extent and consequences of, and potential solutions for low-value surgical procedures in LMICs., Evidence Review: We searched 4 electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, and Global Index Medicus) for studies published from database inception until April 27, 2022, with no restrictions on date or language. A combination of MeSH terms and free-text words about the overuse of surgical procedures was used. Studies examining the problem of overuse of surgical procedures in LMICs were included and categorized by major focus: the extent of overuse, associated factors, consequences, and solutions., Findings: Of 4276 unique records identified, 133 studies across 63 countries were included, reporting on more than 9.1 million surgical procedures (median per study, 894 [IQR, 97-4259]) and with more than 11.4 million participants (median per study, 989 [IQR, 257-6857]). Fourteen studies (10.5%) were multinational. Of the 119 studies (89.5%) originating from single countries, 69 (58.0%) were from upper-middle-income countries and 30 (25.2%) were from East Asia and the Pacific. Of the 42 studies (31.6%) reporting extent of overuse of surgical procedures, most (36 [85.7%]) reported on unnecessary cesarean delivery, with estimated rates in LMICs ranging from 12% to 81%. Evidence on other surgical procedures was limited and included abdominal and percutaneous cardiovascular surgical procedures. Consequences of low-value surgical procedures included harms and costs, such as an estimated US $3.29 billion annual cost of unnecessary cesarean deliveries in China. Associated factors included private financing, and solutions included social media campaigns and multifaceted interventions such as audits, feedback, and reminders., Conclusions and Relevance: This systematic review found growing evidence of overuse of surgical procedures in LMICs, which may generate significant harm and waste of limited resources; the majority of studies reporting overuse were about unnecessary cesarean delivery. Therefore, a better understanding of the problems in other surgical procedures and a robust evaluation of solutions are needed.

Retrospective studies on artificial intelligence (AI) in screening for diabetic retinopathy (DR) have shown promising results in addressing the mismatch between the capacity to implement DR screening and increasing DR incidence. This review sought to evaluate the diagnostic test accuracy (DTA) of AI in screening for referable diabetic retinopathy (RDR) in real-world settings. We searched CENTRAL, PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, and Web of Science on 9 February 2023. We included prospective DTA studies assessing AI against trained human graders (HGs) in screening for RDR in patients with diabetes. Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality against QUADAS-2 criteria. We used the hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristics (HSROC) model to pool estimates of sensitivity and specificity and, forest plots and SROC plots to visually examine heterogeneity in accuracy estimates. From our initial search results of 3899 studies, we included 15 studies comprising 17 datasets. Meta-analyses revealed a sensitivity of 95.33% (95%CI: 90.60-100%) and specificity of 92.01% (95%CI: 87.61-96.42%) for patient-level analysis (10 datasets, N = 45,785) while, for the eye-level analysis, sensitivity was 91.24% (95%CI: 79.15-100%) and specificity, 93.90% (95%CI: 90.63-97.16%) (7 datasets, N = 15,390). Subgroup analyses did not provide variations in the diagnostic accuracy of country classification and DR classification criteria. However, a moderate increase was observed in diagnostic accuracy in the primary-level healthcare settings: sensitivity of 99.35% (95%CI: 96.85-100%), specificity of 93.72% (95%CI: 88.83-98.61%) and, a minimal decrease in the tertiary-level healthcare settings: sensitivity of 94.71% (95%CI: 89.00-100%), specificity of 90.88% (95%CI: 83.22-98.53%). Sensitivity analyses did not show any variations in studies that included diabetic macular edema in the RDR definition, nor studies with ≥3 HGs. This review provides evidence, for the first time from prospective studies, for the effectiveness of AI in screening for RDR in real-world settings. The results may serve to strengthen existing guidelines to improve current practices., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Uy et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Background: Emergence of Plasmodium falciparum resistance to artemether-lumefantrine in Africa prompted the pilot introduction of multiple first-line therapies (MFT) against malaria in Kenya, potentially exposing women-of-childbearing-age (WOCBAs) to anti-malarials with unknown safety profiles in the first trimester. This qualitative study explored knowledge and perceptions among healthcare providers providing malaria treatment to WOCBAs and pregnant women., Methods: In-depth interviews were conducted with purposively selected public and private health facility (HF) and drug outlet (DO) providers within and outside the pilot-MFT area. County health managers were interviewed about their knowledge of the national treatment guidelines. Transcripts were coded by content analysis using the World Health Organization health system building blocks (leadership/governance, financing, health workforce, health information systems, access to medicines, and service delivery)., Results: Thirty providers (HF:21, DO:9) and three health managers were interviewed. Eighteen providers were from HFs in the pilot-MFT area; the remaining three and all nine DOs were outside the pilot-MFT area. The analysis revealed that providers had not been trained in malaria case management in the previous twelve months. DO providers were unfamiliar with national treatment guidelines in pregnancy and reported having no pregnancy tests. Health managers were unable to supervise DOs due to resource limitations. Providers from HFs and DOs noted poor sensitivity of malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) and hesitancy among patients who associated malaria-RDTs with HIV testing. Almost all providers reported anti-malarial stock-outs, with quinine most affected. Patient preference was a major factor in prescribing anti-malarials. Providers in HFs and DOs reported preferentially using artemether-lumefantrine in the first trimester due to the side effects and unavailability of quinine., Conclusion: Knowledge of malaria case management in drug outlets and health facilities remains poor. Improved regulation of DO providers is warranted. Optimizing treatment of malaria in pregnancy requires training, availability of malaria commodities, and pregnancy tests., (© 2023. BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature.)

Background: Concerns about emerging resistance to artemether-lumefantrine (AL) in Africa prompted the pilot introduction of multiple first-line therapies (MFT) in Western Kenya, potentially exposing women-of-childbearing-age (WOCBA) to anti-malarials with unknown safety profiles in the first trimester. The study assessed healthcare provider knowledge and adherence to national guidelines for managing malaria in pregnancy in the context of the MFT pilot., Methods: From March to April 2022, a cross-sectional study was conducted in 50 health facilities (HF) and 40 drug outlets (DO) using structured questionnaires to assess pregnancy detection, malaria diagnosis, and treatment choices by trimester. Differences between HF and DO providers and between MFT and non-MFT HFs were assessed using Chi-square tests., Results: Of 174 providers (77% HF, 23% DO), 56% were from MFT pilot facilities. Most providers had tertiary education; 5% HF and 20% DO had only primary or secondary education. More HF than DO providers had knowledge of malaria treatment guidelines (62% vs. 40%, p = 0.023), received training in malaria in pregnancy (49% vs. 20%, p = 0.002), and reported assessing for pregnancy in WOCBA (98% vs. 78%, p < 0.001). Most providers insisted on parasitological diagnosis, with 59% HF using microscopy and 85% DO using rapid diagnostic tests. More HF than DO providers could correctly name the drugs for treating uncomplicated malaria in the first trimester (oral quinine, or AL if quinine is unavailable) (90% vs. 58%, p < 0.001), second and third trimesters (artemisinin-based combination therapy) (84% vs. 70%, p = 0.07), and for severe malaria (parenteral artesunate/artemether) (94% vs. 60%, p < 0.001). Among HF providers, those in the MFT pilot had more knowledge of malaria treatment guidelines (67% vs. 49%, p = 0.08) and had received training on treatment of malaria in pregnancy (56% vs. 32%, p = 0.03). Few providers (10% HF and 12% DO) had adequate knowledge of malaria treatment in pregnancy, defined as the correct drug and dose for uncomplicated and severe malaria in all trimesters., Conclusions: Knowledge of national malaria in pregnancy treatment guidelines among providers in Western Kenya is suboptimal. Robust training on appropriate anti-malarial and dosage is needed, particularly given the recent change in recommendation for artemether-lumefantrine use in the first trimester. Supervision of DO and HF practices is essential for correct treatment of malaria in pregnancy in the context of MFT programmes., (© 2023. BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature.)

Objective: To assess the quality of available and accessible national Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPGs) in Kenya using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II (AGREE II) tool., Methods: We searched the websites of the Kenyan Ministry of Health, professional associations and contacted experts in relevant organisations. Our scope was guidelines on maternal, neonatal, nutritional disorders, injuries, communicable and non-communicable diseases in Kenya published in the last 5 years until 30 June 2022. Study selection and data extraction were done by three independent reviewers with disagreements resolved via discussion or with a senior reviewer. We conducted a quality assessment using the online English version of AGREE II tool across six domains. Descriptive statistics were analysed using Stata software V.17. The primary outcome was the methodological quality of the included CPGs assessed by the AGREE II tool score., Results: We retrieved 95 CPGs and included 24 in the analysis after screening for eligibility. The CPGs scored best in clarity of presentation and least in the rigour of development. In descending order, the appraisal scores (mean and CI) per domain were as follows: Clarity of presentation 82.96% (95% CI 78.35% to 87.57%) with all guidelines scoring above 50%. Scope and purpose 61.75% (95% CI 54.19% to 69.31%) with seven guidelines scoring less than 50%. Stakeholder involvement 45.25% (95% CI 40.01% to 50.49%) with 16 CPGs scoring less than 50%. Applicability domain 19.88% (95% CI 13.32% to 26.43%) with only one CPG scoring above 50%. Editorial independence 6.92% (95% CI 3.47% to 10.37%) with no CPG scoring above 50% and rigour of development 3% (95% CI 0.61% to 5.39%) with no CPG scoring at least 50%., Conclusion: Our findings suggest that the quality of CPGs in Kenya is limited mainly by the rigour of development, editorial independence, applicability and stakeholder involvement. Training initiatives on evidence-based methodology among guideline developers are needed to improve the overall quality of CPGs for better patient care., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.)

Rationale: Diagnosing bacterial infection as the etiology in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPDs) remains challenging. Sputum discoloration is easily measured and often used as a marker of bacterial infection in AECOPD, although high-quality evidence for this practice is lacking. Objectives: To determine the diagnostic accuracy of sputum color as a marker for bacteria in AECOPD. Methods: Articles were searched for in electronic databases, and the gray literature were reviewed. Quality assessment of included articles was performed using the revised Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies tool. A meta-analysis was conducted using a bivariate logistic regression model with random effects. Analysis was conducted on individual sputum samples rather than on individual participants so that each sample represented a unique index test. Results: Of the 1,600 candidate studies, 13 eligible studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. These included prospective cohort studies ( n  = 3), cross-sectional studies ( n  = 3), and secondary analyses of randomized controlled trials ( n  = 7). The included studies were all from Europe and North America. Most studies scored high risk of bias in at least one domain. In total, this systematic review and meta-analysis included 5,770 sputum samples. The estimated pooled sensitivity and specificity were 81% (95% confidence interval [CI], 70-88%) and 50% (95% CI, 35-65%), respectively, and these results were not significantly altered in a series of sensitivity analyses. Conclusions: Sputum color has limited value as a stand-alone test in diagnosing bacterial infection as the etiology in AECOPD because of its moderate sensitivity and poor specificity.

Objective: To identify and summarize the evidence about the extent of overuse of medications in low- and middle-income countries, its drivers, consequences and potential solutions., Methods: We conducted a scoping review by searching the databases PubMed®, Embase®, APA PsycINFO® and Global Index Medicus using a combination of MeSH terms and free text words around overuse of medications and overtreatment. We included studies in any language published before 25 October 2021 that reported on the extent of overuse, its drivers, consequences and solutions., Findings: We screened 3489 unique records and included 367 studies reporting on over 5.1 million prescriptions across 80 low- and middle-income countries - with studies from 58.6% (17/29) of all low-, 62.0% (31/50) of all lower-middle- and 60.0% (33/55) of all upper-middle-income countries. Of the included studies, 307 (83.7%) reported on the extent of overuse of medications, with estimates ranging from 7.3% to 98.2% (interquartile range: 30.2-64.5). Commonly overused classes included antimicrobials, psychotropic drugs, proton pump inhibitors and antihypertensive drugs. Drivers included limited knowledge of harms of overuse, polypharmacy, poor regulation and financial influences. Consequences were patient harm and cost. Only 11.4% (42/367) of studies evaluated solutions, which included regulatory reforms, educational, deprescribing and audit-feedback initiatives., Conclusion: Growing evidence suggests overuse of medications is widespread within low- and middle-income countries, across multiple drug classes, with few data of solutions from randomized trials. Opportunities exist to build collaborations to rigorously develop and evaluate potential solutions to reduce overuse of medications., ((c) 2023 The authors; licensee World Health Organization.)

The World Health Organization (WHO) model list of Essential In vitro Diagnostic (EDL) introduced in 2018 complements the established Essential Medicines List (EML) and improves its impact on advancing universal health coverage and better health outcomes. We conducted a scoping review of the literature on implementing the WHO essential lists in Africa to inform the implementation of the recently introduced EDL. We searched eight electronic databases for studies reporting on implementing the WHO EDL and EML in Africa. Two authors independently conducted study selection and data extraction, with disagreements resolved through discussion. We used the Supporting the Use of Research Evidence (SURE) framework to extract themes and synthesised findings using thematic content analysis. We used the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 to assess the quality of included studies. We included 172 studies reporting on EDL and EML after screening 3,813 articles titles and abstracts and 1,545 full-text papers. Most (75%, n = 129) studies were purely quantitative in design, comprising descriptive cross-sectional designs (60%, n = 104), 15% (n = 26) were purely qualitative, and 10% (n = 17) had mixed-methods approaches. There were no qualitative or randomised experimental studies about EDL. The main barrier facing the EML and EDL was poorly equipped health facilities-including unavailability or stock-outs of essential in vitro diagnostics and medicines. Financial and non-financial incentives to health facilities and workers were key enablers in implementing the EML; however, their impact differed from one context to another. Only fifty-six (33%) of the included studies were of high quality. Poorly equipped and stocked health facilities remain an implementation barrier to essential diagnostics and medicines. Health system interventions such as financial and non-financial incentives to improve their availability can be applied in different contexts. More implementation study designs, such as experimental and qualitative studies, are required to evaluate the effectiveness of essential lists., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2022 Nyanchoka et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)