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Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.

Numerous per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) occur in consumer food packaging due to intentional and unintentional addition, despite increasing concern about their health and environmental hazards. We present a substance flow analysis framework to assess the flows of PFASs contained in plant fiber-based and plastic food packaging to the waste stream and environment. Each year between 2018 and 2020, an estimated 9000 (range 1100-25 000) and 940 (range 120-2600) tonnes per year of polymeric PFASs were used in 2% of food packaging in the U.S. and Canada, respectively. At least 11 tonnes per year of non-polymeric PFASs also moved through the food packaging life cycle. Approximately 6100 (range 690-13 000) and 700 (range 70-1600) tonnes per year of these PFASs were landfilled or entered composting facilities in the U.S. and Canada, respectively, with the potential to contaminate the environment. The results suggest that minimal food packaging contains intentionally added PFASs which, nonetheless, has the potential to contaminate the entire waste stream. Further, this indicates that PFASs are not needed for most food packaging. These results serve as a benchmark to judge the effectiveness of future industry and government initiatives to limit PFAS use in food packaging., Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 24 (11), ISSN:2050-7887, ISSN:2050-7895