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The instrumentation of the High Altitude and Long Range (HALO) research aircraft is extended by the new Broadband AirCrAft RaDiometer Instrumentation (BACARDI) to quantify the radiative energy budget. Two sets of pyranometers and pyrgeometers are mounted to measure upward and downward solar (0.3–3 µm) and thermal–infrared (3–100 µm) irradiances. The radiometers are installed in a passively ventilated fairing to reduce the effects of the dynamic environment, e.g., fast changes in altitude and temperature. The remaining thermal effects range up to 20 W m−2 for the pyranometers and 10 W m−2 for the pyrgeometers. Using data collected by BACARDI during a night flight, it is demonstrated that the dynamic components of the offsets can be parameterized by the rate of change of the radiometer sensor temperatures, providing a greatly simplifying correction of the dynamic thermal effects. The parameterization provides a linear correction function (200–500 W m−2 K−1 s) that depends on the radiometer type and the mounting position of the radiometer on HALO. Furthermore, BACARDI measurements from the EUREC4A (Elucidating the Role of Clouds—Circulation Coupling in Climate) field campaign are analyzed to characterize the performance of the radiometers and to evaluate all corrections applied in the data processing. Vertical profiles of irradiance measurements up to 10 km altitude show that the thermal offset correction limits the bias due to temperature changes to values below 10 W m−2. Measurements with BACARDI during horizontal, circular flight patterns in cloud-free conditions demonstrate that the common geometric attitude correction of the solar downward irradiance provides reliable measurements in this typical flight section of EUREC4A, even without active stabilization of the radiometer.

The instrumentation of the High Altitude and Long Range (HALO) research aircraft is extended by the new Broadband AirCrAft RaDiometer Instrumentation (BACARDI) to quantify the radiative energy budget. Two sets of pyranometers and pyrgeometers are mounted to measure upward and downward solar (0.3–3 μm) and thermal-infrared (3–100 μm) irradiances. The radiometers are installed in a passively ventilated fairing to reduce the effects of the dynamic environment, e.g., fast changes of altitude and temperature. The remaining thermal effects range up to 20 W m-2 for the pyranometers and 10 W m-2 for the pyrgeometers; they are corrected using an new efficient method that is introduced in this paper. Using data collected by BACARDI during a night flight, the thermal offsets are parameterized by the rate of change of the radiometer sensor temperatures. Applying the sensor temperatures instead of ambient air temperature for the parameterization provides a linear correction function (200–600 W m-2 K-1 s), that depends on the mounting position of the radiometer on HALO. Furthermore, BACARDI measurements from the EUREC4A (Elucidating the role of clouds-circulation coupling in climate) field campaign are analyzed to characterize the performance of the radiometers and to evaluate all corrections applied in the data processing. Vertical profiles of irradiance measurements up to 10 km altitude show that the thermal offset correction limits the bias due to temperature changes to values below 10 W m-2. Measurements with BACARDI during horizontal, circular flight patterns in cloud-free conditions demonstrate that the common geometric attitude correction of the solar downward irradiance provides reliable measurements in this typical flight sections of EUREC4A, even without active stabilization of the radiometer.

Megacities and other major population centres (MPCs) worldwide are major sources of air pollution, both locally as well as downwind. The overall assessment and prediction of the impact of MPC pollution on tropospheric chemistry are challenging. The present work provides an overview of the highlights of a major new contribution to the understanding of this issue based on the data and analysis of the EMeRGe (Effect of Megacities on the transport and transformation of pollutants on the Regional to Global scales) international project. EMeRGe focuses on atmospheric chemistry, dynamics, and transport of local and regional pollution originating in MPCs. Airborne measurements, taking advantage of the long range capabilities of the High Altitude and LOng Range Research Aircraft (HALO, https://www.halo-spp.de, last access: 22 March 2022), are a central part of the project. The synergistic use and consistent interpretation of observational data sets of different spatial and temporal resolution (e.g. from ground-based networks, airborne campaigns, and satellite measurements) supported by modelling within EMeRGe provide unique insight to test the current understanding of MPC pollution outflows. In order to obtain an adequate set of measurements at different spatial scales, two field experiments were positioned in time and space to contrast situations when the photochemical transformation of plumes emerging from MPCs is large. These experiments were conducted in summer 2017 over Europe and in the inter-monsoon period over Asia in spring 2018. The intensive observational periods (IOPs) involved HALO airborne measurements of ozone and its precursors, volatile organic compounds, aerosol particles, and related species as well as coordinated ground-based ancillary observations at different sites. Perfluorocarbon (PFC) tracer releases and model forecasts supported the flight planning, the identification of pollution plumes, and the analysis of chemical transformations during transport. This paper describes the experimental deployment and scientific questions of the IOP in Europe. The MPC targets - London (United Kingdom; UK), the Benelux/Ruhr area (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Germany), Paris (France), Rome and the Po Valley (Italy), and Madrid and Barcelona (Spain) - were investigated during seven HALO research flights with an aircraft base in Germany for a total of 53 flight hours. An in-flight comparison of HALO with the collaborating UK-airborne platform Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements (FAAM) took place to assure accuracy and comparability of the instrumentation on board. Overall, EMeRGe unites measurements of near- and far-field emissions and hence deals with complex air masses of local and distant sources. Regional transport of several European MPC outflows was successfully identified and measured. Chemical processing of the MPC emissions was inferred from airborne observations of primary and secondary pollutants and the ratios between species having different chemical lifetimes. Photochemical processing of aerosol and secondary formation or organic acids was evident during the transport of MPC plumes. Urban plumes mix efficiently with natural sources as mineral dust and with biomass burning emissions from vegetation and forest fires. This confirms the importance of wildland fire emissions in Europe and indicates an important but discontinuous contribution to the European emission budget that might be of relevance in the design of efficient mitigation strategies. The present work provides an overview of the most salient results in the European context, with these being addressed in more detail within additional dedicated EMeRGe studies. The deployment and results obtained in Asia will be the subject of separate publications., The HALO deployment during EMeRGe was funded by a consortium comprising the German Research Foundation (DFG) Priority Program HALO-SPP 1294, the Institute of Atmospheric Physics of DLR, the Max Planck Society (MPG), and the Helmholtz Association. Flora Kluge, Benjamin Schreiner, and Klaus Pfeilsticker acknowledge the support given by the DFG through the project nos. PF 384-16, PF 384-17, and PG 385-19. Ralf Koppmann and Marc Krebsbach acknowledge DFG funding through project no. KR3861_1-1. Katja Bigge acknowledges additional funding from the Heidelberg Graduate School for Physics. Johannes Schneider, Katharina Kaiser, and Stephan Borrmann acknowledge funding through the DFG (project no. 316589531). Lisa Eirenschmalz and Hans Schlager acknowledge support by DFG through project MEPOLL (SCHL1857/4-1). Anna B. Kalisz Hedegaard would like to thank DAAD and DLR for a Research Fellowship. Hans Schlager acknowledge financial support by the DLR TraK (Transport and Climate) project. Michael Sicard acknowledges support from the EU (GA nos. 654109, 778349, 871115, and 101008004) and the Spanish Government (ref. nos. CGL2017-90884-REDT, PID2019-103886RB-I00, RTI2018-096548-B-I00, and MDM-2016-0600). Midhun George, Yangzhuoran Liu, M. Dolores Andrés Hernández, and John Phillip Burrows acknowledge financial support from the University of Bremen. FLEXPART simulations were performed on the HPC cluster Aether at the University of Bremen, financed by DFG within the scope of the Excellence Initiative. Anne-Marlene Blechschmidt was partly funded through the CAMS-84 project. Jennifer Wolf acknowledges support from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy – BMWi (project Digitally optimized Engineering for Services – DoEfS; contract no. 20X1701B). Theresa Harlass thanks DLR VO-R for funding the young investigator research group “Greenhouse Gases”. Mariano Mertens, Patrick Jöckel, and Markus Kilian acknowledge resources of the Deutsches Klimarechenzentrum (DKRZ) granted by the WLA project ID bd0617 for the MECO(n) simulations and the financial support from the DLR projects TraK (Transport und Klima) and the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association through the project “Advanced Earth System Modelling Capacity” (ESM). Bruna A. Holanda acknowledges the funding from Brazilian CNPq (process 200723/2015-4). The article processing charges for this open-access publication were covered by the University of Bremen.