Search

Where is European space science heading? The ‘Green Paper on European Space Policy’ served as the main background document for a European-wide consultation process on space-related issues which took place in 2003, but none of the 12 questions posed in that document specifically addressed nor recognised the role of fundamental research in underpinning any policy for space. As a result of that consultation, this approach was partly corrected in the European Commission''s ‘White Paper’ on space, but uncertainties remain. Involvement in first-class science is absolutely essential for the promotion of European interests and leadership, as it imparts a strong strategic drive to its technological and industrial system. This article discusses the contents of the White Paper and attempts to suggest lines of action concerning space science in relation with the strategy laid out in that document. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries have been facing different cooperation models in the last fifty years regarding space policy and industrial activities. The period before the 1990s provided these countries with a strong heritage of expertise in space engagement which after the fall of the ‘Eastern Block’ offered the basis for cooperation with the other European countries and organisations. The way space policy in the CEE region was shaped during the early period and the way collaboration is conducted today have not been fully analysed. The objective of this paper is to provide a holistic analysis of the evolution of past and present developments of the CEE countries in space activities. The main focus of this paper is given to the Intercosmos period before the 1990s and following that, the integration process of these countries to the European Space Agency (ESA). Additionally, the CEE countries have been engaging in cooperation with other space agencies in Europe and outside. The countries also participate through the EU and its two flagship programmes Galileo and Copernicus amongst others. Furthermore, this paper provides an overview of the ESA accession process established in the early 2000s as ESA responded to the increasing interest of the CEE countries to engage in cooperation in the field of space. The comparison of both, historical and recent developments on CEE countries in space activities, indicates that CEE region has the basis for integrating in the European space sector. Participation in ESA and collaboration with other space faring nations is needed to ensure successful transformation of both their scientific and industrial basis as well as their governance, to the evolving space sector while utilizing the heritage obtained through the past engagements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Space Agency (ESA) has twenty-two Member States with a variety of governance structures and strategic priorities regarding their space activities. The objective of this paper is to provide an up-to date overview and a holistic assessment of the national space governance structures and strategic priorities of the eleven smaller Member States (based on annual ESA contributions). A link is made between the governance structure and the main strategic objectives. The specific needs and interests of small and new Member States in the frame of European Space Integration are addressed. The first part of the paper focuses on the national space governance structures in the eleven smaller ESA Member States. The governance models of these Member States are identified including the responsible ministries and the entities entrusted with the implementation of space strategy/policy and programmes of the country. The second part of this paper focuses on the content and analysis of the national space strategies and indicates the main priorities and trends in the eleven smaller ESA Member States. The priorities are categorised with regards to technology domains, the role of space in the areas of sustainability and the motivators for space investments. In a third and final part, attention is given to the specific needs and interests of the smaller Member States in the frame of European space integration. ESA instruments are tailored to facilitate the needs and interests of the eleven smaller and/or new Member States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space can be used as a tool by decision and policy makers in developing, implementing and monitoring various policy areas including resource management, environment, transport, security and energy. This paper focuses on the role of space for the energy policy. Firstly, the paper summarizes the European Union's (EU) main objectives in energy policy enclosed in the Energy Strategy 2020–2030–2050 and demonstrates how space assets can contribute to achieving those objectives. Secondly, the paper addresses how the European Space Agency ( ESA) has established multiple initiatives and programs that directly finance the development of space assets, technology and applications that deliver services in support of the EU energy policy and sector. These efforts should be continued and strengthened in order to overcome identified technological challenges. The use of space assets, technology and applications, can help achieve the energy policy objectives for the next decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the basic philosophy behind India's space strategy based on ideological, sociological, political, economic, geostrategic and legal constructs. The paper uses the metaphor of “deconstruction” made famous by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida's (1930–2004) to understand various transitions (if any) in India's space policy over the years and the philosophy behind them. The paper follows a ‘narrative based scrutiny’ approach to recognise Indian attitude for investments into space technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remotely sensed data can be used to understand and devise measures to address important global issues such as climate change, disaster and disease outbreak. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is one of the largest producer and gatekeeper of satellite earth observation (EO) data that plays a crucial role in ensuring that these resources are used for solving global societal problems. However, the extent of remote sensing application is highly disparate in different parts of the world. This paper provides a general overview of key societal applications that have been enabled globally with the use of EO data. It also summarizes the impact of various NASA-supported programs for promoting applications on the targeted beneficiary communities. The themes addressed here are land cover/land use mapping, carbon biomass assessment, food security, disaster management, water resources, ocean management and health and air quality. The paper also argues for capacity building that is crucial to building sustainable solutions when using EO data for science-based decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing consensus among stakeholders around the world that the long-term objective of human space exploration is the long-duration presence of humans on the surface of Mars. However, the key question concerns the choice of near-term missions that will bridge current human spaceflight activities in low Earth orbit (LEO) and eventual Mars exploration. This paper contributes to this debate by identifying the scope of possible near-term missions, arguing that there are only four realistic proposals for initial human exploration beyond low Earth orbit: a cis-lunar habitat, asteroid redirect, Mars flyby, and a short lunar surface sortie. The paper then evaluates these missions across five criteria: 1) technical/economic feasibility, 2) contribution to the eventual goal of exploring Mars, 3) potential for international cooperation, 4) global readiness for the mission, and 5) political feasibility to establish a clear assessment of the pros and cons of each of these four missions. While recognizing that any one of these missions represents a feasible option for future human space exploration, we recommend that the international community pursue development of a cis-lunar habitat as its immediate goal. This mission maximizes development of technology necessary for Mars exploration, provides significant opportunities for meaningful international participation, and could be achieved on a reasonable schedule with current budgets. Both the asteroid redirect mission and lunar exploration plans have the potential to benefit from the development of a cis-lunar habitat and could be retained as intermediate or parallel missions, as resources allow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Third World Approaches to International Law or TWAIL is a useful starting point to assess space governance issues from the perspective of emerging or aspirant space actors and users because it helps to highlight imbalances and asymmetry around the “legal right” to space benefit under Article I(1) of the Outer Space Treaty. However, a new analytical lens focused on Cosmopolitan Approaches to International Law or CAIL is proposed that can deconstruct the existing agenda in light of it obscuring the idea of shared benefits without attributing blame, scepticism or negativity. In the quest to ensure fairness to all, including aspirant emerging space actors, largely from developing States, this paper asks what does one learn from the space law context that prompts us to reorient the frame of analysis that Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL) perspective brings to bear and focus on a CAILian perspective? Primarily that a TWAILian approach is too one sided and polarized. A CAILian approach however acknowledges reciprocal responsibilities. In conclusion, I am not making a claim here that my CAILian concept has never been articulated before. However, the way I link the concept of Cosmopolitanism with a school of thought that I am sympathetic to (TWAIL) is where this paper provides a novel idea. My specific version of Cosmopolitanism bears in mind the importance of collective ideas. While CAIL will not be free from power asymmetry's because there will always be polarity; it still chooses to focus on the middle ground and not to focus on extremes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Space Agency (ESA) has twenty Member States with a variety of strategic priorities and governance structures regarding their space activities. A number of countries engage in space activities exclusively though ESA, while others have also their own national space programme. Some consider ESA as their prime space agency and others have additionally their own national agency with respective programmes. The main objective of this paper is to provide an up-to date overview and a holistic assessment of strategic priorities and the national space governance structures in 20 ESA Member States. This analysis and assessment has been conducted by analysing the Member States public documents, information provided at ESA workshop on this topic and though unstructured interviews. The paper is structured to include two main elements: priorities and trends in national space strategies and space governance in ESA Member States. The first part of this paper focuses on the content and analysis of the national space strategies and indicates the main priorities and trends in Member States. The priorities are categorised with regards to technology domains, the role of space in the areas of sustainability and the motivators that boost engagement in space. These vary from one Member State to another and include with different levels of engagement in technology domains amongst others: science and exploration, navigation, Earth observation, human space flight, launchers, telecommunications, and integrated applications. Member States allocate a different role of space as enabling tool adding to the advancement of sustainability areas including: security, resources, environment and climate change, transport and communication, energy, and knowledge and education. The motivators motivating reasoning which enhances or hinders space engagement also differs. The motivators identified are industrial competitiveness, job creation, technology development and transfer, social benefits, international cooperation, and European non-dependence. The second part of the paper provides a categorisation of national space governance structures in ESA Member States. Different governance models are identified depending on the responsible ministries for space for a number of space related organisations and ESA. In the case of ESA, these can typically vary from the more traditional ministry of science and/or education, the ministry of industry and/or innovation to the more recent ones being the ministry of economy and the ministry of transport. Recognising the transverse nature of space and its potential as a tool for a number of policies like agriculture, environment, maritime, disaster management, etc., other ministries are more and more getting involved in space activities. The development and implementation of the space strategy and policy of a Member State is realised though the engagement of an implementing entity. The type, role and activity vary from Member State to Member State. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper analyzes Colombia׳s space policy: its successes, its failures and what it still needs to achieve. The paper examines the interaction among the different players, and how this policy contributes to economic and social development of the country. And postulates that, unless a real national plan of action, with specific milestones and budget as well as a managing agency are developed, this policy may be in danger of disappearing. The Colombian Space Commission (Comisión Colombiana del Espacio, or CCE) was created by Presidential Decree 2442 in 2006. It is a multi-sectorial entity, in charge of coordinating, planning, and leading in the implementation of national policies for the development and application of space technologies. The CCE was also charged with the drafting of plans and programs in this field. The CCE began with only a few members (15) and today is comprised of 47 members: 13 ministries, 4 administrative departments, another 21 governmental entities and 9 universities, the latter acting as consultants. The Vice-President of the Republic is the President of the CCE. These different actors gave great importance to the development of Colombia׳s space sector, and 6 years later, they are continuing support and development the country׳s space policy. This analysis takes into account three aspects: first, achieving the objectives of the CCE: the creation and development of a national space policy for Colombia; secondly, focussing on “target groups” and “end users”; and thirdly, the “outcomes” or achievements to date. Some conclusions are worth highlighting: first, the warm reception and support of the CCE by both the public and private sectors on high levels, but the poor knowledge of the national space policy by the Colombian people and the small and medium companies. Secondly, in the context of public policy [9], the strategic plan called “National Policy in regard to Space Activities”, is caught between two phases: the formulation and decision-making regarding the program, and its implementation. And finally, the members of the CCE do not necessarily act in accordance with a national strategy, but follow their own interests, resulting in undue influence (and perhaps interference) in the development of a coherent national space policy. In brief, the author hopes that this first analysis of Colombia׳s experience with its Space Commission will serve as an example to other developing countries that also are seeking to develop their space sector, and implement a national space policy. Further, the author hopes that this analysis will allow the various politico-administrative actors “policy makers” in Colombia, as well as the general public, to realize that, while much has been accomplished, much still remains to be done. It is essential to keep alive the interest shown in space activities; otherwise, Colombia׳s space policy may become an “endangered species”, in danger of failing and disappearing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The EU 7th Framework Project FAST20XX [1] aimed to enlarge the foundations of suborbital high-speed transportation in a wide variety of fields. One of the key issues of this project was to outline a desirable regulatory framework that would best serve the interests of all European stakeholders in this new activity. The US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has issued a series of requirements for operators of commercial suborbital flights under the 2004 Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act (CSLAA), enabling the corresponding market to develop. These regulations were initially valid until 2012 but have now been extended until 2015. In Europe, practical and successful attempts to fly experimental vehicles of this kind do not yet exist. However, several developments indicate that it is becoming urgent to pay attention to this potential new industry and find ways to regulate it in a safe yet flexible manner. Although the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) explored the possibility in 2008 to prepare for a certification approach under the concept of “Suborbital Aeroplanes” (SoA), this initiative was put on hold in 2011, and a final decision by the European Commission is still pending. This paper highlights some of the research performed by the authors towards the establishment of a roadmap for future regulation of suborbital flight in Europe. In particular, it will present results of a survey carried out among stakeholders, including operators and manufacturers of vehicles, spaceports, national and European regulators, insurers and brokers, consultants, users and lobbyists. The paper also presents results from the workshop on the future regulatory framework for suborbital flights in Europe, which was co-organised by the present authors and held in Brussels in October 2012. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Despite a rich legacy of impressive technological accomplishments, the government acquisition of advanced space systems is increasingly synonymous with schedule slips and cost overruns. Program reviews have suggested that investing more in centralized and strategic research and development outside particular programs will reduce technical uncertainties and improve cost and schedule outcomes. This paper suggests roles for a centralized technology office by examining the methods available in the literature for managing portfolios of research projects. In particular, the paper answers three questions. Firstly, it examines the key features that characterize the space agencies' innovation context compared to the private sector where most of the portfolio literature is founded. Secondly, it summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the models in the literature. Finally, the paper addresses how innovation decision making should be structured within agencies in order to achieve the best results. The paper concludes that an executive level technology office is best placed to act as an enabler, rather than an absolute decision maker. Such an office would not replace decision making at the technical manager level, but would provide overall strategic direction and guidance within which technical managers can make decisions about project innovation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The phenomenon of private human access to space has introduced a new set of problems in the insurance sector. Orbital and suborbital space transportation will surely be unique commercial services for this new market. Discussions are under way regarding space insurance, in order to establish whether this new market ought to be regulated by aviation or space law. Alongside new definitions, infrastructures, legal frameworks and liability insurances, the insurance sector has also been introducing a new approach. In this paper, I aim to analyse some of the possibilities of new premiums, capacities, and policies (under aviation or space insurance rules), as well as the new insurance products related to vehicles, passengers and third party liability. This paper claims that a change toward new insurance regimes is crucial, due to the current stage in development of space tourism and the urgency to adapt insurance rules to support future development in this area. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: India in Asia and Brazil in Latin America are regarded as the most promising global economies. This paper examines the openings and possibilities for space technology collaboration between India and Latin American states under the larger rubric of science and technology collaboration. While the distance and language barriers between the two regions have proved a hindrance in the past, the paper proceeds with an assumption that, in the 21st century, such barriers should not be a limitation on developing strategic, economic, and science and technology partnerships among nation-states. The paper argues that the Latin American states are keen to have their own satellites because of their significant utility in the socioeconomic sector and this offers an opportunity to India to use cooperation in space technologies as a powerful tool for engagement in Latin America. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China's space policy and its purpose have become an increasingly contentious subject. This paper critically examines the claims, made by Ashley Tellis, among others, that China has a space strategy decided and coordinated by the Chinese military and dedicated to defeating superior US power locally in an asymmetrical war, and that it is this military space strategy that drives China's single-minded pursuit of space science and technology and the development of China's space programme. To do so, the paper conducts two investigations: into the declining role of the Chinese military in China's foreign and security policy making and its limited influence in formulating China's grand strategy; and the other into the contingent history of China's two space programs, Shenzhou and Chang'e, which have largely been driven by civilian scientist communities, rather than the military. In so doing, I argue that the claims of China's ‘military space strategy’ are over-imaginative and serve a particular political purpose. The social imaginary of a threatening China produced by the US strategic gaze at China in space, I further argue, has dangerous policy implications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines Nobel Prize Winner Elinor Ostrom''s principles for sustainable governance of common-pool resources (CPR), capturing the best practices of CPRs over the years, which avoid the “Tragedy of the Commons” without being either completely privatized or controlled by a Leviathan entity. Ostrom''s principles highlight, inter alia, the need for clear boundary definitions, rules tailored to fit the domain, who has a say in formulation of collective-choice agreements and operational rules, monitoring of behavior, graduated penalties, and conflict resolution mechanisms. In the context of the space domain they highlight issues such as the definition of where space begins, gaps in the existing liability regime, the concept of collaborative space situational awareness, and how best to include emerging and developing space actors in negotiations and decision making. The paper concludes that Ostrom''s principles highlight specific areas on which to focus initial space sustainability efforts and national and international policy. It also recommends further analysis into how best to translate her principles to the space domain, where they may not be wholly applicable because of the unique nature of space, and how to evolve space governance institutions and mechanisms to best suit the unique environment of outer space. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Using the US-coined concept of space industrialization and reflecting the ongoing creation of a space economy, this paper maintains that China’s 20-odd years of practice and achievement in crop breeding in space should be seen as an integral part of any space economy. The paper analyzes the Chinese government’s space breeding policies, its support for it via financial allocation, and the relevant programs, and highlights the key achievements so far achieved in the sector. In conclusion, it outlines the main hurdles to crop breeding in space but looks forward to a bright future for this activity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The paper reports research into the transfer of technology typically used in the construction of scientific satellites. Four case studies are analyzed to clarify some basic mechanisms of the transfer of space technology to the industrial system. The paper finds that the technologies analyzed in the construction of satellites for the most part stem from the integration of technical processes already known in various industrial sectors; the use of these processes in space involves their substantial strengthening and upgrading in terms of performance; and this upgrading permits them to return to industrial sectors that use the technological advances acquired for coping with complex problems in the space sector. This research has helped validate some of the determinants of technology transfer already noted in the literature, while increasing the number and content of these. Useful indications emerge for policy makers and agents involved in technology transfer programs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Based on the premise that both India and Canada are spacefaring nations actively involved in the exploration and use of outer space towards scientific and commercial ends, this paper seeks to pave the way for each of the two countries to derive optimum scientific and economic benefits from their space activities through bilateral cooperation. Although each country''s space programme has a different focus, the analysis in the paper demonstrates that they could be highly complementary of, and beneficial to, each other. Notwithstanding the presently conducive political environment for bilateral cooperation, as evidenced by the recent high-level political exchanges between the two countries, there are several regulatory and policy obstacles that will hinder any efforts towards bilateral space cooperation. The paper proffers some viable options for overcoming the challenges identified or envisaged. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Political and technical concerns are tightly intertwined in the design of modern space systems. The political environment often responds harshly to the associated high costs of these endeavors. Political sustainability is therefore at least as important as the technical performance parameters of new space systems under development. This paper outlines a methodology by which a system architect may trace the recursive impacts of political choice on technical choice, and vice versa. Using the implementation of the Vision for Space Exploration as a case study, a Policy–Technology Feedback loop is outlined. This paper then demonstrates how political sustainability may be incorporated into the design process such that a politically savvy system architect may appropriately trade present costs against future costs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The space elevator is an advanced space transportation system that someday could replace chemical rockets as humanity''s primary means of reaching Earth''s orbit. However, before this can occur, a number of enabling technologies will need to be developed, and a variety of economic and policy questions must be addressed. The goal of this paper is to examine the feasibility of the space elevator in the context of current space exploration policy. The paper reviews the space elevator''s critical enabling technologies and presents their wide variety of applications. The challenges of funding the space elevator and of building support for the program are discussed. The potential for international cooperation is considered, and the role of the space elevator in the Vision for Space Exploration is examined. The paper argues that each of the space elevator''s component technologies ought to be developed independently to meet separate nearer-term objectives. The space elevator should be just one of many applications considered in making decisions to pursue research and development related to each component technology. The enabling technologies, once mature, might eventually be integrated in the construction of a full-scale space elevator from the Earth''s surface to geosynchronous orbit and beyond. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China''s ambitious space program was born in extremely poor national conditions in 1956. By 15 October 2003, with the successful return of the Shenzhou-4 manned space flight, it had developed dramatically. While this flight is a milestone in China''s space capabilities, the Shenzhou-4 mission should be considered not as an end, but as the entry ticket to the space power club of the USA and Russia. China may now be a space power, but it is not yet a military space superpower in the way of the latter two countries. This paper investigates whether China will become a military space superpower by reviewing the development of its space program. It examines Chinese military space capabilities in terms of their military space potential, and discusses the political, military and economic implications of this issue. Finally, the paper suggests that China should continue to take the road to openness, focusing on commercial and economic efforts. This will be an alternative direction in which the country can consider exactly what space capabilities it needs in order to continue its economic development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper addresses legal issues relating to the relationship between ESA and the EU. At present, several policy options are being discussed on how the two international organisations might enhance their cooperation in order to allow Europe''s space activities to become more efficient and more competitive. The political options can be classified into four models, each having its specific implications concerning institutional and substantive legal questions. It becomes equally apparent that any cooperation of the two organisations will have certain effects on the funding of space programmes. The paper outlines the various models against the background of the latest policy developments and gives an overview of the possible implications of the models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The study of political system in future Mars colony belongs to the futures studies, space policy and political sciences. While this is a long-term scenario, there are good reasons to foresight possible evolution of political systems in space. In this paper, some selected historical examples of the establishing of political systems in colonies are used as a starting point for modelling possible development of political system in Mars colony. This paper presents also possible scenarios of mass Mars colonization. The paper states that while there are possible a couple of options strongly affected by not-predictable environmental and social constraints, the most optimal scenario would be direct democracy or technocracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper employs the institutional logics perspective to understand how space policies and regulations influences entrepreneurship and innovation. We conducted interviews with entrepreneurs, ESA policy makers and governmental representatives in Austria and identified six prevailing institutional practices: geographical return, the SME-initiatives, the national support pattern, the size pattern, the consortium pattern and the experience pattern. Together, these patterns make up the semi-governmental logic of the space sector. We find that space actors adhere to these patterns to earn legitimacy, which is a condition for support and access to resources. This study adds to our understanding in the consequences of policies and contributes to the design of new space policies and programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the importance of space in today's space driven world, the current space activities of Turkey, its space organizations with legislation background information and calls for the necessity for the establishment of the Turkish Space Agency (TSA). Firstly, the importance of space is given which is followed by a brief background and current space activities in Turkey. Then, the answers to why Turkey needs a National Space Agency are outlined by stating its expected role and duties. Additionally, the framework for space policy for Turkey is proposed and the findings are compared with other developing regional space actors. Lastly, it is proposed and demonstrated that Turkey is on the right track with its space policy and it is suggested that the establishment of the TSA is critical both for a coherent space policy and progress as well as the successful development of its national space industry, security and international space relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper analyses the different positions in the debate about the institutional integration of ESA and the EU. In particular it considers previous articles published in Space Policy on both sides of the argument, i.e. ESA incorporation into the EU or EU membership in ESA. ESA becoming the space agency of the EU seems to be the compromise position. The analytical focus of this paper is whether these positions are realistic or whether we really need a common European space policy under one leadership, and therefore implicitly under the EU. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

There is a small finite upper bound on the amount of easily accessible water in near-Earth space, including water from C-type NEAs and permanently shadowed lunar craters. Recent estimates put this total at about 3.7 × 10 12 kg . Given the non-renewable nature of this resource, we should begin thinking carefully about the regulation of near-Earth water sources (NEWS). This paper discusses this issue from an ethical vantage point, and argues that for the foreseeable future, the scientific use of NEWS should be prioritized over other potential uses of NEWS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to study the new generation of space policy, analyzing the factors that are pushing towards a new configuration: the new political actors active in this field – developing countries , particularly the BRICs – and the market forces. The objective is to identify the critical factors that are changing the character of space policy. Thanks largely to the interviews conducted in the field, it has been possible to identify three elements which concur to shape a “new pattern” of space policy: the new generation satellites (so called “small satellites”); the ability to launch and the platforms from which to put satellites into orbit; GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) signals that several space agencies are trying to refine in order to become independent from US influence, exerted by “global” supplying of the GPS (Global Positioning System) signal. In conclusion it is therefore possible to reaffirm that space policy is one of the most evident indicators of the changes taking place in post-Cold War politics, and at the same time they are in themselves a critical factor in the definition – and continuous re-definition – of the political hierarchies in the international arena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Third World Approaches to International Law or TWAIL is a useful starting point to assess space governance issues from the perspective of emerging or aspirant space actors and users because it helps to highlight imbalances and asymmetry around the supposed “legal right” to space benefit under Article I(1) of the Outer Space Treaty. However, a new analytical lens focused on Cosmopolitan Approaches to International Law or CAIL is proposed that can deconstruct the existing agenda in light of it obscuring the idea of shared benefits without attributing blame, scepticism or negativity, a charge often placed against TWAIL perspectives. This paper asks what one learns from the space law context that prompts us to reorient the frame of analysis that TWAIL perspective brings to bear and focus on a CAILian perspective. Primarily that a TWAILian approach is too one sided and polarized and that a CAILian approach acknowledges reciprocal responsibilities. It highlights the implications of the approach both for emerging and aspirant as well as established space nations specifically and for global space governance in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2011 the number of satellites less than 50 kg launched annually has increased by an order of magnitude. This trend is driven in part by proliferation of small satellite and lean satellite projects worldwide. In this decade alone, over 30 new countries are expected to achieve their first satellite in space. More than ever before, emerging countries are engaging in space-related activities. However, barriers such as lack of funding and underdeveloped human resources prevent many emerging nations from initiating or sustaining space programs. Kyushu Institute of Technology (Kyutech) has played an active role in space-related capacity building and international cooperation since 2009, then partnering with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs to formulate a long-term fellowship programme hosted at Kyutech. Growing out of the success of the fellowship programme, Kyutech began significantly expanding its space-related capacity building project in 2013. This paper gives an overview of Kyutech's university-based model to enhance space-related capacity building and human resource development in emerging countries worldwide, and discusses advantages and disadvantages of alternative approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In January 2016, a debate was held on UK space policy in the House of Commons, timed to coincide with the extravehicular activity (EVA) undertaken by British astronaut Major Tim Peake as part of his mission to the International Space Station (ISS). UK participation in ISS activities marked the culmination of a significant reorientation of government space policy in recent years, and analysis of the parliamentary debate facilitates insight into the nature of that reorientation, and the policy goals that lay at its heart. It also delineates three key themes which underpinned the parliamentary debate: the novelty of space policy as a topic of political discussion in parliament; the use of the parliamentary arena as a means through which MPs champion their constituencies as prime locations for valuable economic benefits associated with the space sector; and the portrayal of space as a source of inspiration and driver of aspiration, and as an opportunity for a vigorous space industry policy. The paper argues for the utility of parliamentary analysis as a way to enrich our understanding of the evolution of contemporary UK space policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global community of scientists involved in finding and tracking near-Earth asteroids (NEOs), identifying potentially hazardous NEOs, and characterizing the possible effects of asteroid impacts with Earth is developing an awareness of the need to improve and expand efforts to communicate with policy and decision makers about the work they do. This paper addresses the criticality of clear, concise, correct communications about asteroid impact risks and hazards, as well as proper distinctions among risks, hazards, and actual threats. It reviews recent progress in communication about NEO hazards and impact risks, including new recommendations from expert groups, guidelines for responsible communication about hazards and risks, communication issues raised in collaborations with disaster planners, and other relevant developments. The next significant asteroid impact with Earth could be 500 years from now, or next week. The need to be prepared for such an event is clear. Policy and decision makers will depend on the community of experts involved in NEO observations and planning for planetary defense for information on the risks and hazards of asteroid impacts with Earth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the renewed interest in exploring and exploiting the resources of the Moon, this paper will explore the proposition that sustainability should be a fundamental consideration when formulating policy in respect of regulating lunar activities. The current lunar regulatory framework, however, is a product of the Cold War and conceived at a time when sustainability and space environmental issues were not within the contemplation of policy makers. Yet there is an increasing awareness of the need for space sustainability within the space community and this should be focused towards shaping policy in respect of lunar exploration. Inherently linked to this is a new multi-sectored era of space activity with emerging space nations and private companies competing alongside established space actors to exploit the natural resources of the Moon. Disputes over legally binding methods of lunar resource allocation are harming the chances of obtaining any consensus regarding sustainable development. This discussion will show that there is no compelling evidence that commercial mining of the Moon will yield the vast natural resources that would make such a venture economically viable. It will be advocated that a policy of promoting the use of the moon for scientific and exploratory purposes by means of existing fora such as IDAC and using non-binding codes to create normative values of sustainability should be placed at the heart of lunar exploration policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper offers a proposition in which the notion of the 'ownership' of outer space is substituted for that of 'authorship'. The notion of authorship draws attention to the processes of critical thinking, re-contextualization and resistances to space technology that take place in social domains where no clear role exists either as audience or user of space technology. The proposition responds in part to interventions made by artists in recent years into the workplaces of space technologists and, incrementally, into the imaginaries that inform the kinds of activities that happen in space. Artistic processes expose the reception of space technology at an intimate scale where the agencies of the viewer to observe, absorb and rethink converge with the shaping of space technology via state mediation and space agency imperatives. The constituency of collective authorship to which space technologies are subject is revealed in unexpected ways through artistic intervention that suggests a reappraisal of some of the terms of reference guiding space policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After the Cold War ended in the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the space race was not the factor behind the space exploration and exploitation anymore. The aim of this paper is to analyze the transatlantic space cooperation between the USA (more specifically NASA) and the ESA. The cooperation can be driven by two major motives – economic and political. The empirical evidence suggests that while ESA is motivated by the economic one NASA is motivated by the political one. ESA is seemingly on NASA's tail but it benefits economically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses a timely and widespread issue, that of public opinion and the rise of “big data.” Analysts of US space policy have consistently noted the role that public opinion plays in setting the directions for US space exploration. However, the tools that have been used to measure public opinion suffer from serious shortcomings in terms of timing and lack of available data. This paper introduces two new measures of public opinion, Google Trends and Twitter, and details how they can be used to assist in measuring interest in space policy in the American public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa has made significant advances in attempting to organise and formalise its space sector with the prime focus of leveraging the benefits of space science and technology for socio-economic growth and sustainable development. A particular instrument in this regard is the National Space Policy, which provides for a set of strategic objectives and guiding principles in terms of how stakeholders, both state and non-state actors, should organise and conduct themselves within the framework of a national space programme. The National Space Policy aims to improve the level of co-ordination and co-operative governance in the space sector that in the past has been fragmented and disorganised, and to further develop a domestic space industrial base. The foundation for a sustainable national space programme hinges critically on the participation of the domestic industry in the national space agenda and thereto the creation of a supportive regulatory environment is necessary. This paper provides insight into the main tenets of South Africa’s National Space Policy with the aim of highlighting the key policy directives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In order to justify high expenditure during this period of financial crisis, Space Agencies have attempted to increase the returns on their investments in Space missions by encouraging the commercial use of advanced technologies. The development of a technology transfer process from Space to Earth not only benefits the Aerospace industry but also the network of national companies. Technology transfer has been shown to stimulate innovation in business and commerce, support economic growth and provide a return on public investment in research and development (R&D). The aim of this paper is to systematically review the Space technology transfer literature and to suggest directions for future research. The range of research and studies in the literature on this topic requires a systematic review to summarize the results in an unbiased and balanced manner and to interpret these in a way that highlights the research gaps. This article presents an overview of the dominant thinking (explicit in selected articles from 1995 to present), indicating the problems of analysis, research gaps and a future research program. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Innovation is fundamental to a space agency's mission. Yet, the industry's current dominant approach to new technology development – concerted investment in step-changes in capabilities to support a particular application – contradicts the conventional wisdom of innovation theory. In order to understand why, this paper uses a unique empirical case study, in which exogenous historical circumstances created unexpected additional opportunities for technology investment, to explore the merits of this approach. The value of follow-on periods of R&D is assessed in terms of simple marginal returns, implications for workforce dynamics and the interaction of mission sequencing and technology strategy. The analysis reveals an important contingency between mission paradigm and the value of follow-on investment. Specifically, while marginal performance improvements can be achieved at lower costs, their value depends on the availability of an appropriate mission opportunity. In the current paradigm, the risk of obsolescence is high compared to the potential benefit. However, if a new small mission, frequent flights, paradigm were to take hold, there may be great value in refocusing R&D strategy on later round improvements. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In Japan, there are several government ministries and agencies with important roles in the development and use of space. In 2012, Japan restructured its administrative organs related to the development and use of space through legal amendments to the original acts that established these organs. Although this was an important administrative reform that took four years of planning and discussion to accomplish, this restructuring has not been communicated well outside of Japan. This study provides the first comprehensive overview of the recent legal changes in Japanese space policy. In contrast to some reports, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) still has primary responsibility for the finances and personnel of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). This continues to be true even after the Cabinet Office begins its new role as the focal point for formulating Japanese space policy. It remains to be seen how the policy direction of the Cabinet Office will interact with the operational, financial, and personnel responsibilities of MEXT. I argue that knowledge of the roles of MEXT and the Cabinet Office in space policy, and the tension between the two organizations, is key to understanding Japan's future space policy decision-making process. By tracing the history of Japanese space policy since 2001, I also suggest that if bureaucrats had thought more deeply before making major reforms to space policy and its administration, there would have been less confusion over the development of national space policy this past decade. This paper concludes by identifying some key elements to monitor in the coming years of Japan's space policy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Satellite remote sensing technology has contributed to the transformation of multiple earth science domains, putting space observations at the forefront of innovation in earth science. With new satellite missions being launched every year, new types of earth science data are being incorporated into science models and decision-making systems in a broad array of organizations. Policy guidance can influence the degree to which user needs influence mission design and when, and ensure that satellite missions serve both the scientific and user communities without becoming unfocused and overly expensive. By considering the needs of the user community early on in the mission-design process, agencies can ensure that satellites meet the needs of multiple constituencies. This paper describes the mission development process in NASA and ESA and compares and contrasts the successes and challenges faced by these agencies as they try to balance science and applications within their missions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The successful realisation of the flagship programmes, Galileo/EGNOS and GMES has been in doubt as a result of the current financial constraints. In providing an overview of the role of these two programmes in relation to implementing European policies – with sector-by-sector information on the ways they can help fulfil specific EU objectives – this paper attempts to demonstrate why and how they must be successfully operationalised. It therefore continues by analysing their political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal strengths and weaknesses and makes policy recommendations on this basis. Utilising these flagship programmes to carry through major European policies will be crucial for realising their great potential and achieving the Europe 2020 goals of the European Union. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With its draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities, the European Union has become visible in the debate on space security. In this paper we analyze this development, drawing on theoretical concepts in the scholarly debate about the ‘actorness’ of the EU. We find that the EU can be considered as an emerging actor in space security. However, the Code of Conduct initiative should be considered only a first step in this regard because it does not answer the question of whether the EU should pursue a policy of deterrence or arms control in space. We argue that the latter option would be better, because it is in line with the interests and values of the EU. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper investigates the role of the European Parliament (EP) in the development of the space policy of the EU (EUSP), an important policy area that has been neglected in the political science and EU studies literature. EUSP is the offspring of the European space policy which started as a purely intergovernmental affair, but gradually acquired a supranational dimension. Although the EP did little to initiate this process, it always supported the involvement of the EU in space, and it used both its formal and informal powers to affect and promote its development. Under the consultation procedure the EP managed to become a conditional agenda setter, and under co-decision an influential legislation maker. The changes it introduced in the European global navigation satellite and Earth observation programmes relate not only to the inter-institutional balance and its controlling powers, but to a series of substantive issues also. Consequently, the activism of the EP has played an important part in the development of the EUSP, even if it was not the main force behind its inception. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper analyses the growing involvement of the European Defence Agency (EA) in the field of space, suggesting that this is symptomatic of the greater importance now being placed on military space by the European Union. It charts the history of the agency in general and its role in space in particular, delineating the many synergetic relations it has with other space-related institutions at EU level. It argues that EDA is as much a response to socioeconomic as strategic considerations, and that it acts to protect European competitiveness in the arms field, thereby highlighting the rising significance of EU military space policy for European security and military institutions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper traces the way in which the European Commission has framed and reframed the issue of EU satellite navigation over 20 years. It investigates how the EU''s agenda-setter has ‘talked about’ space policy, with a particular focus on Galileo, and how its own institutional discourse – as revealed in its communications throughout the agenda-setting stage of Galileo''s ‘definition’ phase – evolved in the 1990s through the use of ‘frame sets’. In so doing, it illustrates the ways in which, over time, the EU''s executive has ‘projected’ the issue of independent satellite navigation capabilities as being politically and economically desirable for Europe, and has sought to persuade decision makers of its cross-policy relevance and potential economic, social and security benefits. The article deconstructs official documents and engages in a close-up analysis of policy formulation, to identify nascent, evolving and mature frames in the definition of Galileo. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The rise of the EU as an actor in the European and world space theatres, in its various roles as initiator, owner and operator of large-scale programmes such as Galileo and GMES, has raised a number of questions with regard to industrial policy. Based on the experiences from the Galileo programme''s procurement round in the Full Operational Capability (FOC) phase and on the present discussions on space industrial policy within the EU, this paper argues that, whereas the EU''s political ambitions in space have been discussed and become reasonably well defined, the specific policy tools and legal instruments to put them into practice are far from complete. First, an unequivocal industrial policy for the space sector needs to be defined that reconciles the Union''s political ambitions with the economic specificities of the space sector. At present, this is a work in progress, with opinions diverging between member states. Second, both logically and temporally, these policy decisions need to be translated into legal instruments that allow their implementation. This implies the development of made-to-measure funding instruments and procurement rules. We conclude by emphasising the need for a sector-specific industrial policy as an integral part of the EU''s space policy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This introduction to a special issue sets out the themes to be explored – the role of the EU in a now largely peaceful Europe, the possibilities for space to become a more important tool of EU policy and its potential for promoting further European integration and a European identity – before discussing the various papers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Though unremarkable to some, the 1990s and 2000s saw important events and changes in the U.S. space sector. These changes were by no means preemptive but rather reactions to key events. This paper studies five moments over the two decades that have shaped the American space industry significantly. The author explains how these events have affected change and indicated shifting trends. The shifts examined are those in the American space industry’s structure as well as its approach to innovation and to the globalization of the space sector. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]