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Purpose The purpose of this study is to map the intellectual structure of the research concerning conflict and conflict management in virtual teams (VT), to contribute to the further integration of knowledge among different streams of research and to develop an interpretative framework to stimulate future research. Design/methodology/approach A data set of 107 relevant papers on the topic was retrieved using the Web of Science Core Collection database covering a period ranging from 2001 to 2019. A comparative bibliometric analysis consisting of the integration of results from the citation, co-citation and bibliographic coupling was performed to identify the most influential papers. The systematic literature review complemented the bibliometric results by clustering the most influential papers. Findings The results revealed different intellectual structures across several types of analyses. Despite such differences, 41 papers resulted as the most impactful and provided evidence of the emergence of five thematic clusters: trust, performance, cultural diversity, knowledge management and team management. Research limitations/implications Based on the bibliometric analyses an interpretative research agenda has been developed that unveils the main future research avenues. The paper also offers important theoretical contributions by systematizing knowledge on conflict in identifying VTs. Managerial contributions in the form of the identification of best practices are also developed to guide conflict management in VTs. Originality/value The uniqueness of this paper is related to its effort in studying, mapping and systematizing the knowledge concerning the topic of handling conflicts in VTs. Considering the current contingencies, this research is particularly timely.

Purpose Intractable conflict is a long-time violent and self-perpetuating crisis. The peacemaking revolution has the potential to stop the destructive dynamic of the conflict. The purpose of this paper is to present a contractualist model of a peacemaking revolution and its theoretical foundations. It analyzes the revolutionary peacemaking process in Northern Ireland during the 1990s in light of the contractualist model. Design/methodology/approach The paper presents a contractualist model to describe the interplay between leaders (policymakers) and people (public opinion) and its impact on the strategy to cope with situations of intractable conflict. The paper includes theoretical background and a case study analysis. Findings The peacemaking revolution is a process of dynamic equilibrium between peacemaking policy and public expectations for change. It progresses from one point of equilibrium to the next. Originality/value The paper intends to add a fresh perspective to the study of the peacemaking revolution, in general, and the interplay between peacemaking policy and public support in particular. It points out that a consensus-building process, which combines political-elite diplomacy and public diplomacy, has the potential to create the conditions for a peacemaking revolution. Political-elite diplomacy offers diplomatic channels for leaders to begin a peace process, support it and conclude agreements. Public diplomacy offers instruments to involve the people in the peacemaking efforts, prepare them for a change and motivate the leaderships to conclude agreements.

Purpose This paper aims to reveal the role of conflict management in the process of trust development. Specifically, this study investigates how the salience of conflict varies with different conflict-handling behaviors and behavioral outcomes and how the variation of the salience of conflict influences the trust development between contracting parties. Design/methodology/approach A questionnaire survey was undertaken to collect data from 310 experienced project practitioners. Hierarchical regression analysis and bootstrapping with a structural equation model were mainly used to test the hypotheses. Findings This paper finds that the relational degree of conflict handling behaviors can influence the salience of conflict and furthermore to influence trust between contracting parties, with this relationship mediated by the behavioral outcomes; however, all these relationships are contingent on the stage where relational conflict handling behaviors are adopted and the specific type of outcomes the behaviors result in. Practical implications This study provides some specific directions for the practitioners to conduct relational conflict handling behaviors and generate positive outcomes to keep trust developing between contracting parties in conflictual situations. Originality/value This study contributes to the knowledge of inter-organizational trust development as well as conflict management, by investigating the relationship between conflict and trust in a direction, which is less examined and revealing the process of conflict management, where the conflict handling behaviors influence behavioral outcomes to further manage conflict, in trust development.

PurposeThere has been an increase in the number of highly qualified management graduates specialized in finance from various esteemed universities in India, thus increasing the competition for finance job roles in the country. This, therefore, brings in the need for the employees or the prospective candidates to mold their soft skills so as to make them desirable by the companies and hence employable. The purpose of this paper is to provide a list of skills required by management graduates to become employable for finance job roles from the perspective of corporate executives. This list will enable prospective candidates to prepare themselves for a career in the field of finance.Design/methodology/approachThe research was carried out through the collection of data from 117 finance professionals with a minimum work experience of 5 years with the help of structured questionnaires. This was then analyzed through factor analysis and the list of 15 factors was obtained.FindingsA list of 15 essential factors was obtained through the analysis of the data. The essential skills included empathetic and judicious behavior, professional etiquette and employee well-being, ethical behavior, conflict management, change analysis and prediction; practicality and organizational presence of mind; social and moral presence of mind; self-confidence and effective written communication; effective interpersonal communication and employee value systems; responsibility and self-awareness; problem diagnosis and problem-solving; real-time work and activity experience; professional development and advancement; technology rationalization and effective information generation. The findings also included that a candidate should be able to effectively present crucial information and should possess practical advisory skills.Originality/valueThe study will be highly beneficial for management graduates who have specialized in finance to secure finance job roles in India. This paper will enable the students to prepare themselves in the essential soft skills required for these job roles apart from technical knowledge and hard skills.

Purpose This paper aims to investigate the importance of knowledge management as a moderator in the relationship between two of the burnout variables, namely, role ambiguity and work overload. In addition, the paper tests a conceptual model where emotional exhaustion is a moderator in the relationship between role ambiguity, work overload and performance. Design/methodology/approach Using a structured survey instrument, this paper gathered data from 692 respondents from the information technology industry in the southern part of India. The first psychometric properties of the instrument were tested and then hierarchical regression was used as a statistical technique for analyzing the data. Findings Results show that role conflict is positively related to role ambiguity and work overload, role ambiguity is negatively related to performance, work overload is positively related to performance, knowledge management moderates the relationship between role conflict and role ambiguity and role conflict and work overload. The hierarchical regression results also support that emotional exhaustion moderates the relationship between role ambiguity and performance and work overload and performance. Research limitations/implications As the present research is based on self-report measures, the limitations of social desirability bias and common method bias are inherent. However, this study attempts to minimize these limitations by following appropriate statistical techniques and procedures. Practical implications This study contributes to both practicing managers and the literature on conflict management. The study suggests that managers use knowledge management practices to mitigate the ill-effects of role conflict and enhance performance. This study also highlights the role of emotional exhaustion in organizations. Originality/value This study provides new insights about the importance of knowledge management practices and emotional exhaustion in the relationship between role conflict and performance. To the knowledge, the importance of knowledge management practices is underemphasized in conflict management research. The study also provides insights into the role of one of the burnout variables i.e. emotional exhaustion in its influence on performance. The implications of this relationship for organizational role theory and organizational learning theory and for management practice, are discussed.

PurposeTeams often cannot fulfill their managers’ expectations due to unfairness issues and dysfunctional conflicts with teammates. This paper aims to create a fair team environment, it is important to analyze the interrelationship between unfairness and conflict. However, only a few studies have done this and reported inconsistent results. Using negative reciprocity research as a theoretical foundation, this paper analyzes the interconnection between unfairness and conflict dimensions in the team context. This paper further integrates conflict management research to show employees and managers how to handle unfairness and conflict in teams.Design/methodology/approachThe authors conducted a longitudinal survey study (three points in time) with 237 employees from different German organizations.FindingsThe results of cross-lagged structural equation modeling provide some evidence that interpersonal, procedural and informational unfairness predict relationship conflict and process conflict. Several of these effects become non-significant over time. Further, relationship and process conflict have several significant relationships with the unfairness dimensions, while task conflict did not have any significant relationship. The results also suggest that employees can break up the vicious cycle of unfairness and conflict by using a cooperative conflict management approach.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper focuses on members of autonomous, interdependent and existing teams and the interpersonal relationship of a team member with her or his teammates. Future research could analyze leader-member relationships in different team types.Practical implicationsThe application of cooperative conflict management enables employees to break up the vicious cycle of unfairness.Originality/valueThis paper clarifies the interrelationship between unfairness and conflict and shows that a team member can apply a cooperative conflict management style to handle effectively unfairness and conflict.

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the influence of entrepreneur’s political involvement on private-own enterprises’ (POEs’) selection of two inter-organizational conflict resolutions approaches (private approach and public approach), in the context of China’s transition economy.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on a sample of POEs operating in China’s transition economy in the year 2000, this study investigates the possible association between the entrepreneur’s political involvement and the approach chosen to resolve inter-organizational conflicts. A further step is taken to look into the implications of such a choice.FindingsThe empirical study reveals that those POEs with greater entrepreneurial political involvement have the propensity to rely on public approach. In general, POEs are more satisfied with the private approach than the public approach when managing conflicts. Besides, the study shows that the positive effects derived from the entrepreneur’s satisfaction on private approach will be weakened in more established institutions.Originality/valueThis paper has its unique contribution in highlighting the significance of how entrepreneurs’ political involvement interferes with inter-organizational conflict resolution.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore leader flexibility in the manufacturing sector. The objectives are to understand the nature of uncertainties that leaders face and how their personal attributes facilitate them in responding to uncertain situations. Design/methodology/approach A total of 20 middle- and senior-level executives were interviewed, using seven semi-structured questions, from four states in India. Responses were analyzed using thematic analysis. Findings In this paper, two themes were identified: the need for flexibility and competencies. The need for flexibility included the factors that warrant adaptability and the performance requirements, such as changes in external environment, reconciling opposing demands, unpredictability of human resources and day-to-day contingencies. Performance requirements included monitoring the environment, anticipating changes, creating shared meanings, developing adaptability in human resources, understanding contradictions and generating alternate solutions. Competencies included balancing different values, roles, and behaviors, coaching and team building skills, planning skills, systems thinking, social skills, conflict management skills and openness to learning. Research limitations/implications Interviews were conducted with only executives; interviewing their subordinates may have revealed different perspectives. With the accounts being retrospective, few details may have been missed or exaggerated. Practical implications The findings can be used to apprise leaders of the challenges they may face and develop competencies required for leader flexibility. Originality/value Leadership research in the manufacturing sector is mostly focused on leaders’ responses to environmental uncertainties. This research identifies the task demands associated with unpredictability of human factors and daily contingencies, and the competencies used to respond.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to locate, describe and analyze the differences between the way migrants from communal cultures and local communities in Western Europe resolve intra-communal and inter-communal conflicts, and to use the findings to propose a hybrid alternative model that may be able to bridge across identified differences. Such a hybrid model will facilitate enhanced integration and adaptation between host and migrant communities, contributing to improved conflict resolution outcomes.Design/methodology/approachThis paper starts with an exploration, review and analysis of existing relevant literature describing refugee/migrant–host community interactions and their consequences. The second stage includes review and analysis of relevant alternative dispute resolution (ADR) literature. The third stage undertakes an examination and analysis of the practices identified in stage two, and the fourth stage proposes a method that uses potentially “bridging” practices by incorporating useful and relevant elements from host and refugee communities’ ADR mechanisms, in a way that may help resolve inter-communal disputes.FindingsThe paper demonstrates significant differences between host and migrant communities’ dispute resolution practices and the integrability of relevant ADR approaches toward creating a usable, hybrid, bridging approach to handle inter-communal conflicts.Research limitations/implicationsThe paper proposes a hybrid “bridging” host–refugee inter-communal conflict management model. The proposed model should be tested to prove feasibility and viability.Practical implicationsShould the proposed model prove useful, the practical implications may lead to the construction and use of different (hybrid) conflict management mechanisms in appropriate communities. Such mechanisms may lead to a reduction in the number and severity of inter-communal conflicts.Social implicationsA reduction in inter-communal conflicts within the framework of a host–migrant interface may have strong positive outcome to inter (and intra) communal relations and may reduce friction, crime, marginalization, hostility and radicalization.Originality/valueThe paper highlights the challenges to both migrant and host communities when it comes to finding a common ground for resolving inter-communal disputes and offers a pragmatic hybrid model to bridge cultural and functional gaps and help promote mutually satisfactory outcomes.

Purpose To hinder the high failure rate of strategic networks, recently scholars have concentrated on behavioral aspects such as trust, conflict management, resolution and commitment as fundamental antecedents of strategic network performance. Within this context, this paper focuses on the antecedents of affective commitment, based on the rationale that an increasing affective commitment cannot occur naturally during network evolution. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to understand how affective commitment is achieved along the development process of small- and medium-sized enterprise (SME) strategic networks. Design/methodology/approach To address the aim of the paper, a qualitative approach based on multiple case studies was used. Two case studies of Italian SME strategic networks having an increasing and decreasing level of affective commitment were selected to have a base of comparison, following a “polar types” theoretical sampling approach. Findings By comparing two cases in which partners show a different affective commitment along the network development process, this study allows providing a twofold contribution. The former is to unveil the most relevant elements partners may rely on to achieve an increasing affective commitment and the latter is to propose a dynamic approach toward the study of affective commitment in SME strategic networks. Research limitations/implications Considering the limited generalizability of this exploratory study due to the analysis of two cases, future studies with a larger number of strategic multipartner networks can expand the understanding of the dynamics leading to increasing commitment. Practical implications The paper provides a series of practical guidelines for managers to create a trusting environment with a high level of affective commitment within the context of SME networks, which can contribute to their survival. Originality/value The originality of the study consists in having adopted a dynamic approach toward studying affective commitment in the context of SME networks, which resulted in the identification of relevant factors that can lead to increasing affective commitment.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to discuss the necessity of tertiary education in promoting innovations of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area by using cases from other well-developed bay areas. Design/methodology/approach The paper used cases from bay areas of the USA and Japan to discover approaches that have been used to strengthen collaborations between tertiary education and industries by innovations. Findings This paper found that bay areas in the USA and Japan have adopted or developed various approaches to enhancing collaborations between tertiary education and industries. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the well-established knowledge transfer offices in universities help scholars to discover the commercial value of academic findings and help business in reverse. In New York Bay Area, big corporations built research institutes for universities with considerable findings. In Tokyo Bay Area, corporations and universities have developed various internship programs for different levels of students and also provide funds for universities to conduct research works. Originality/value This paper analysed approaches that using by other well-developed bay areas through real cases, and suggested that the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Greater Bay Area should adopt these experiences in order to strengthen collaborations between tertiary education and industries to promote innovations.

PurposeThis paper aims to identify and explore the overall frequency and characteristics of policy conflicts, with a focus upon those factors affecting conflict resolutions in South Korea.Design/methodology/approachThe study uses data from cases of conflict from the Korean Public Policy Conflict Database (KPPCDB) (1948-2014). For the analysis of data, chi-squared test and multinomial logistic regression are used.FindingsThe findings show a total of 2,030 policy conflicts in 1948-2014, most of which were conflicts of interest (47.9 per cent). More than 70 per cent (71.2 per cent) were policy conflicts between the government and the private sector; the field with the most policy conflicts was regional development (21.0 per cent), and 84.1 per cent of all policy conflicts were resolved. The factors that affected conflict resolution by interest were conflicts between the government and private sector, authoritarian government, national regions and capital areas.Practical implicationsThis paper suggests reforming the current procedures of conflict management, adopting alternative dispute resolutions, and developing a social-consensus-building process for efficiently resolving conflicts.Originality/valueThis study built a database (KPPCDB) examining 66 years of conflict cases that took place between 1948, the year the Korean Government was established, and 2014. This database covers all cases of policy conflicts that occurred in Korea and provides a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena of policy conflicts and conflict resolution.

Purpose Although several studies have evaluated effective factors for conflict occurrence, researchers have developed few methods of determining preventive capacities and determining preventive measures on the basis of an analysis of chain of risks that cause conflict. The purpose of this paper is to devise a mechanism for conflict prevention by evaluating chain of risks that cause conflict and different conflict types. Design/methodology/approach Efforts centered on facilitating the prevention conflicts through analyzing the effects of chain of risks on change causes, decomposing the mixture of conflict types in each conflict and determining the contribution of each conflict type to conflict creation. Findings The paper expands the existing body of knowledge on conflict management through the determination of complex relationships, namely, the relationship between conflict causes and project parties and the coherence between project parties and conflict types. Originality/value A practical example is analyzed to demonstrate the proposed approach capabilities. The results showed that using the developed approach to determine conflict type can serve as a means of control in projects and the developed approach can be incorporated into construction contracts as a conflict resolution mechanism. This paper presents an understanding of complex relationships among the chain of risks which cause conflict, the important players in conflict management process and different conflict types. It also provides a basis to select an effective management method for each conflict.

Purpose Conflict is inevitable in organizational life. On the one hand, it can bring creativity and enhance problem-solving. On the other, it can hinder effective problem-solving, increase defensiveness and member dissatisfaction, and create a destructive work environment. This paper aims to outline four important components of harmonization that help to enhance conflict-management capability. Design/methodology/approach Based on Nguyen and Belk’s (2013) harmonization framework, the author adds their own comments and places in the context of resolving conflict in organization. Findings The harmonization process synthesizes multiple goals and balances differences to achieve better solutions without discounting any of these elements. Harmonization provides better understanding of important issues and why they are critical to each party. Each party will feel better about the situation after having heard the other side’s position. There might be anger, anxiety, or frustration at the beginning. However, when people successfully go through the harmonization process, they feel happy, connected to others and proud of the results they get. These processes require communicating with others, learning others’ perspectives, understanding and empathizing with others, and being willing to adjust. Practical implications The paper outlines four skills in which organizations can train their employees to improve conflict management. Originality/value Harmonization process is applied to conflict management in organization.

Purpose This paper aims to use a multi-level approach to examine the effects of emotional intelligence (EI) components on conflict management styles of Chinese managers when the respondents were in conflicts with their subordinates, peers or superiors. Design/methodology/approach The primary research was conducted in Dalian, China, via a personal survey resulting in 885 usable observations for analysis. EI was measured using the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS; Wong and Law, 2002), which is made up of 16 questions measuring four dimensions. The conflict management component was measured via Rahim’s (1983) five conflict management styles, which are avoidance, dominating, collaboration, compromise and integration. Findings The data analyses suggested that managers at different levels possess different EI and adopt different conflict management styles when dealing with their subordinates, peers and superiors. Specifically, when subordinates were involved in a conflict, junior managers and female managers were more likely to use the dominating style, while when peers were involved in a conflict, male managers were more likely to use the dominating style. When peers were involved in a conflict, managers working in public sectors were more likely to adopt the integrating, avoiding, obliging and compromising style. The Chinese managers were found to regulate their emotions and use of their emotions effectively in conflict with their peers and supervisors and thus they tended to adopt the avoiding, integrating and obliging style. Self-emotions appraisal and others emotions appraisal were significant to the adoption of the obliging style to handle conflict with their peers and supervisors. Use of emotions effectively was significant for the Chinese managers adopting the compromising style in conflicts with their peers, superiors and subordinates. Research limitations/implications The authors could only reach employees working and living in one city, which affects the generalizability of the paper. Practical implications Training should be provided to managers at different levels on the awareness of the impact of EI on conflict management at workplace. Originality/value There is little existing research on how employees across different levels within organisations in China moderate their EI according to the party they are interacting with. The objective of this paper is to stimulate further debate on the matter, thereby improving the understanding of EI moderation.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to analyze the phenomenon of urban tourism hypertrophy (UTH) in the context of the process of tourism-related social conflicts formation; and second, to discuss the extent to which destination management organizations (DMOs) are prepared to take responsibilities and actions undertaken in this process.Design/methodology/approachThe paper adopts conflict management (CM) theory as a framework for discussing UTH within the city context. The paper then analyzes the empirical example of social conflict in Kraków (Poland) to assess the predispositions of key institutions engaged in destination governance to lead CM process triggered by UTH. The Circle of Conflict approach proposed by C. Moore (The Mediation Process: Practical Strategies for Resolving Conflict, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA, 2014) is utilized as the main application method.FindingsThe study shows that DMO is the most appropriate entity to deal with UTH as a conflict manager; however, it has insufficient resources to fulfill all requirements relating to that role. Therefore, the range of responsibilities and roles of the contemporary DMOs should be completed with CM as the permanent task during UTH crisis.Research limitations/implicationsThe example study was based on interviews carried out with a limited number of informants. Also, the contextual nature of the research as well as specific destination governance structure in Kraków blurred the picture of DMOs predispositions to leading the CM process.Practical implicationsThe study supports urban DMO managers by suggesting a tool of diagnosis and intervention in UTH-induced conflicts. Thus, it makes fulfilling the mediator role a destination governance task.Social implicationsCM brings agreement among parties as to the understanding of the nature of conflict, which forms the basis for quick and mutually agreed actions, according to sustainable development principles.Originality/valueThe paper proposes an alternative approach to mitigate UTH-related problems in cities by adopting the CM framework which emphasizes the universal nature of conflict causes and proposes adequate tools for undertaking actions by DMOs.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between relationship conflict and the perception of organization politics (POP) and the moderating role of employee engagement. The study hypothesizes that the conflict results in the presence of POP only for those employees who are relatively less engaged with the organization. The paper further explores the mediating role of perceived politics between the relationship conflict and job-related outcome variables including openness to diversity, turnover intent and perception of justice. In sum, the authors contend that employee engagement will act as a moderator between relationship conflict and POP, and POP further will act as a mediator between relationship conflict and its job-related outcomes.Design/methodology/approachA descriptive study was carried on to conduct this research. Data were collected at two different points of time from the employees of two public sector undertakings (n=206). About 80 questionnaires were not returned by the respondents, reducing the sample size to be 126. Of these, 115 were usable, resulting in a 55.83 percent response rate. SEM was employed to test the hypotheses with the help of Smart PLS 3.0. A two-step process was followed to test the hypothesized model. Testing the significance of proposed relationships in the structural model was followed by the evaluation of the measurement model.FindingsThe results of the study highlighted a positive association between the relationship conflict and POP. A moderating effect of employee engagement on relationship conflict and perceived organizational politics (POP) was observed. Further, POP was found to have a positive relationship with the intention to leave and a negative relationship with openness to diversity and perception of justice was observed. POP mediated the relationship between relationship conflict with the intention to leave and the perception of justice.Research limitations/implicationsThe very first limitation of the present study is its cross-sectional design. Since the data were gathered from the same respondents, the causal relationships between variables are subject to biases (Bobko and Stone-Romero, 1998). Further, the data were gathered with the help of self-report questionnaires, and the findings of this study might have been influenced by the social desirability response bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Hence, future work should focus on using a combination of sources for data collection. This study also proposes a possible role of emotional intelligence in employee engagement and their POP, which can be tested in future studies.Practical implicationsThe study suggests that relationship conflict leads to POP, which eventually results in adverse job-related outcomes. In order to control the negative effects of politics perception, organizations should undertake conflict prevention and conflict management techniques. To further reduce the level of POP, organizations shall take steps to better engage their employees because even when the level of relationship conflict is high, people perceive less politics if they are highly engaged with the organization.Originality/valueThe study is an original work carried out to understand the relationship between relationship conflict and the POP, and the moderating role of employee engagement.

Purpose Over the past decades, growing interest in the behaviour of boards of directors has brought forth empirical studies on actual board behaviour. An important stream within this research followed the model proposed by Forbes and Milliken in 1999 in which the board processes, effort norms, cognitive conflict and the use of knowledge, are hypothesized to influence the performance of boards of directors. This paper aims to take stock of the results from this stream of research. The sometimes inconsistent results, and assumed methodological flaws of this research, leave open the question whether it makes sense to continue with this line of research. Design/methodology/approach Through a research synthesis of 17 primary studies on (parts of) the model proposed by Forbes and Milliken (1999), this question is addressed directly by clarifying what is known from the research done so far and by identifying possible distorting methodological moderators. Findings Strong empirical support is found for the effect of effort norms and the use of knowledge and skills on board task performance. The evidence for cognitive conflicts however was found to be inconclusive. Common method and respondent bias seem to be a lesser concern than often stated. Research limitations/implications Future studies should not only look closely at the construct validity of conflict, but should also have to account for the multidimensionality of conflicts and the interdependency and endogeneity in the relationship between behaviour and performance in boards. Originality/value This is the first paper that systematically integrates and reviews the empirical results of the research following the Forbes and Milliken model and sketches roads for future research on board behaviour.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to address the issues raised by hidden conflicts in a charismatic-led organization. The paper investigates the transformation from a management paradigm of quelling conflict artificially through charismatic leadership to a paradigm of negotiation that favors participation, systematicity, the multiplying of innovation sources and synchronization. The research is based on a specific approach to action research aimed at revealing the inherently masked conflictive energy, and contributing to a more sustainable, peaceful and well-performing construct.Design/methodology/approachThe framework is a specific approach to participatory action research that the authors call socio-economic intervention research.FindingsThe results of the research support the proposition that while charismatic leadership quells conflict and jeopardizes the sustainability of the organization, socio-economic intervention research can help transform conflicts into cooperation in this type of organization.Originality/valueThe main contributions relate to shedding light on the hazards of denying conflict in charismatic-led organizations, and the importance of systemic negotiation in transforming conflict into cooperation in the Middle Eastern cultural context.

Purpose This paper aims to study the positive impact of functional conflict and conflict management in improving supplier–reseller relationship performance in multi-channel setting (reseller together with supplier’s sales reps). The authors develop four hypotheses, including direct and mediated effects, about conflict management, conflict and the impact on channel performance. Design/methodology/approach The authors’ sample of suppliers in the information and communication technology (ICT) industry in Brazil consists of an interesting setting of multi-channel distribution, as suppliers deal with sales reps in combination with reseller channels to offer products to customers. The sample is representative of the industry, including more than 60 per cent of the ICT suppliers. The model was tested with partial least squares in the context of ICT industry in Brazil. Findings The empirical test shows that although an increase in functional conflict improves channel performance (direct effect), an excessive increase may amplify the dysfunctional conflict, thereby damaging channel performance (indirect effect). The negative interplay between the two natures of conflicts is counterbalanced with conflict management. Results show that conflict management improves channel performance by decreasing the harmful effects of dysfunctional conflict. This paper contributes to the theory by deepening our understanding of conflict, a critical challenge underlying supplier–reseller relationships in marketing channels. For managers, this research clarifies the importance of considering and managing conflict of different nature in the context of multi-marketing channels. Originality/value The contribution of the authors’ study is twofold. First, they develop an integrative mediating model with key constructs of multi-channels’ conflict and channel performance. They incorporate the causal relationships between functional and dysfunctional conflict, conflict management and channel performance into a single conceptual framework. This integrative mediating model to the best of their knowledge has not been developed before. Second, they provide managers with a broad understanding of conflict management implications to supplier’s multi-channel strategy, and how functional conflict can actually be beneficial for channel performance.

Purpose This paper aims to investigate the effect of cooperative conflict management on agreement-seeking behavior, agreement-seeking behavior on decision outcomes, moderating role of competence-based trust on the relationship between agreement-seeking behavior and decision outcomes, and mediating role of agreement-seeking behavior between cooperative conflict management and decision outcomes. Design/methodology/approach Using a structured survey instrument, this paper gathered data from 348 students enrolled in a strategic management capstone course that features strategic decision-making in a simulated business strategy game. The data from 94 teams were collected from the student population using a carefully administered instrument. The data were aggregated after running the inter-rater agreement test and the analyzed to test the hypotheses. Findings The results from the hierarchical regression of the complex moderated mediation model reveal that cooperative conflict management is positively related to agreement-seeking behavior, and agreement-seeking behavior mediates the relationship between cooperative conflict management and decision outcomes. The results also suggest that competence-based trust acts as a moderator in the relationship between agreement-seeking behavior and decision quality; agreement-seeking behavior and team effectiveness, and agreement-seeking behavior and decision commitment. Results also support mediation of agreement-seeking behavior between cooperative conflict management and decision outcomes. Research limitations/implications The present research is based on self-report measures, and hence, the limitations of social desirability bias and common method bias are inherent. However, adequate care is taken to minimize these limitations. The research has implications for the strategic decision-making process literature. Practical implications In addition to the strategic management literature, this study contributes to practicing managers. The study suggests that competence-based trust plays a vital role in decision effectiveness. Administrators need to select the members in the decision-making process who have competence-based trust on one another and engage in agreement-seeking behavior. Social implications The findings from the study help in creating a fruitful social environment in organizations. Originality/value This study provides new insights about the previously unknown effects of cooperative conflict management and agreement-seeking behavior in strategic decision-making process.

Purpose The purpose of this research paper is to investigate the role of individual and cultural differences, specifically religious motivation and attitudes toward nepotism, in the selection of conflict management styles (obliging, avoiding, forcing, integrating and compromising), in the Middle-Eastern context. Design/methodology/approach The research surveyed a sample of 588 individuals (both Muslims and Christians), representative of the Jordanian population. Data were analyzed through multiple ANOVAs and multiple regressions. Findings Results suggest that both religious motivation and attitude toward nepotism affect the choice of conflict management styles, while demographic variables, such as age and gender, do not seem to have an effect. Originality/value This paper constitutes one of the first attempts to investigate the conflict management style preferences of a Middle-Eastern society and the role of two important cultural variables, namely, religious motivation and attitudes toward nepotism, which have not been previously investigated by conflict management research.

Purpose This paper aims to examine the asymmetric effect of cultural distance on the relationship between cultural intelligence and expatriate adjustment through the mechanisms of conflict management styles. Design/methodology/approach This paper conceptualizes a model depicting the interplay between culture intelligence, conflict management styles, cultural flows and expatriate adjustment. Findings The authors argue that the integrating style aggravates the positive effects of cultural intelligence on expatriate adjustment, while the avoiding style may undermine such effects. There is also a possible moderating effect of cultural distance asymmetry on the relationship between cultural intelligence and expatriate adjustment such that, the positive influence of cultural intelligence on adjustment is reinforced when the expatriate is sent from a loose cultural environment to adjust to a tight cultural environment, and that the positive influence of cultural intelligence on adjustment is diminished when the expatriate is sent from a tight cultural environment to adjust to a loose cultural environment. Originality/value This paper explicates the mediating effect of conflict management styles and the moderating roles of cultural distance asymmetry on the relationship between cultural intelligence and expatriate adjustment. The authors suggest that the level of adjustment is contingent on the direction of cultural flows that the assignment operates in.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to discuss cultural causes of conflict in the workplace and call for research to address what happens when cultures collide generating workplace conflict. The author assumes that because cultures differ in terms of functional solutions to problems of social interaction that there will be conflict when people from different cultures are interdependent in the workplace. The author discusses types of culture and their conflict management profiles with respect to three characteristics of conflict management: direct vs indirect confrontation; emotional expression, and third party conflict management. The author proposes what happens when cultures collide and calls for research on those collisions. Design/methodology/approach Application of the cultural literature on self-worth to three elements of workplace conflict: direct vs indirect confrontation of conflict, feelings and expressions of negative emotions associated with conflict and timing and type of third party intervention. Findings When people from dignity, face, and honor cultures are working together the fundamental differences in the logic of self-worth in these three types of culture may cause conflict. People from dignity and honor cultures are likely to confront conflict directly, while those from face cultures are more likely to confront conflict indirectly. Workplace conflict generates negative emotions, but culture seems to affect whether that emotion is anger, shame or both. The timing of third party intervention into workplace conflict, that is, how managers intervene in workplace conflict has some parallels with how community mediators act in that culture. Research limitations/implications There is limited research comparing management of workplace conflict in dignity, face, and honor cultures. The author generates propositions and suggests a research strategy for collecting data to test propositions. Practical implications Understanding what is culturally normative in terms of self-worth, confrontation, emotional expression, and managerial intervention can help people involved in workplace conflict understand what they are experiencing. It can also help managers intervene effectively. Social implications How people react to workplace conflict varies with culture as does how managers intervene. Knowing this provides people with the first element of cultural intelligence that may help them manage conflict to facilitate a more creative and effective multicultural work environment. Originality/value This paper integrates theory and research from cross-cultural psychology, the psychology of emotion and the literature on third party intervention into community conflict to explain the patterns of cultural conflict and conflict management in the workplace. It also suggests what it may take to manage cultural conflict in the workplace successfully.

Purpose This paper aims to analyze the transferability of a conflict management model developed for business organizations to a temporary and international research project to serve as a support tool for internal communication and in case of conflict. Design/methodology/approach The authors analyze the transferability of a conflict management model that was initially developed for business organizations to an international, inter-organizational and temporary research project that is third-party funded. Using a case study, a participatory approach is applied with both qualitative and quantitative methods used. Findings The transferability is possible but only with the adaption of conflict prevention. The project’s international and inter-organizational structure further results in a need for decentralization of conflict management responsibilities and diversification of conflict management approaches. Time, financial resources and a high autonomy of cooperation partners limit the degree of participation in the design process. Research limitations/implications The research is based on a case study. Research on comparative design processes are needed to verify or extrapolate findings and to help assess the impact of conflict management systems in other large research projects. Originality/value This paper contributes to the body of knowledge on conflict management systems. By implementing a conflict management system in a temporary, international and scientific project environment, this case study identifies contextual factors relevant for the system design and provides initial test results. As conflict management systems in research projects are not yet prominent, this adapted model of conflict prevention and management can benefit similar projects.

PurposeAlthough mediation has increased considerably in popularity and usage, it lacks a coherent framework and evidence base to illuminate the conditions under which different types of mediation strategies are most effective. This has resulted in a wide array of strategies and tactics being offered to mediators, with little sense of which may work best under different conditions. This paper aims to further develop a contingency model of adaptive mediation.Design/methodology/approachThe current paper extends previous research on adaptive mediation by presenting findings from focus group and survey research with experienced mediators that help to further develop and specify a new adaptive model of mediation.FindingsThe findings support the utility of a contingency model of adaptive mediation based on the four fundamental dimensions of mediation situations (conflict intensity, situational constraints, cooperative vs competitive disputant relationships and overt vs covert issues and processes) for better understanding and predicting changes in mediator strategies independent of mediator style preferences.Research limitations/implicationsThe present studies reflect the behavioral tactics experienced mediators recommend when facing the four distinct challenges to mediation. Research has yet to determine whether the sets of tactics recommended would actually be more successfully used in mediations presenting the four challenges. Subsequent research should assess the relative effects of the use of the different behavioral strategies under these conditions.Originality/valueThe program of research described and extended in this paper is an attempt to develop an integrative model of adaptive mediation, which can ultimately enhance the critical link between mediation research on the one hand and mediation practice on the other.

Purpose This paper aims to explain how peace research has influenced a re-conceptualization of the international relations (IR) notion of security and conflict, the nature of the global arena, how to effectively negotiate conflict resolution and strategies for peacebuilding. The paper argues that – although peace research had contributed to reducing the threat of interstate conflict – IR scholars have failed to recognize the need for a more inclusive theoretical strategy for dealing with the new challenge imposed by intrastate conflict. Design/methodology/approach The paper uses Cyprus as a case to compare the conflict management strategies of the liberal peace agenda and the integrative, multi-level, multi-dimensional approach to peacebuilding that is proposed by peace research. The Cyprus case is also used as an example of how the alternative approach to participatory political communication has moved the Cyprus situation off deadlock and in the direction of more promising outcomes. Findings The research reveals that although the liberal peace agenda (i.e. the state-centric and established diplomatic approach to conflict management) is effective in getting the two sides of the conflict to the negotiating table, it is inadequate in addressing the underlying cause of conflict; thus, in many instances, there is a reoccurrence of conflict and violence. Research limitations/implications The paper is limited in its ability to place peace research within the context of theoretical developments in the field of IR (e.g. this is even more-so true in regard to researching international politics). Although peace research has made enormous contributions in reducing the threat of interstate conflict (e.g. it is acknowledged that peace research contributed to ending the Cold War, thus bringing about new perspectives on how the global arena is defined, the nature of conflict and the role of communicative action in global relations), there has not been a corresponding development in the theory and practice of IR. Practical implications The paper explains how recent developments in communication theory and information communication technology have altered the nature of the global arena and the factors impacting global social movements. Thus, the paper indicates factors that are vital to cross-border interactions, cross-border social movements and alternative approaches to interstate social-political activities that deserve further research. Social implications The research analyzes the contribution to participatory political communication in conflict management, reconciliation and peacebuilding processes. The paper also highlights the role of alternative media as a component of the infrastructure for peace (e.g. in the Cyprus context, it provides a forum in which agents from an otherwise divided community can participate in establishing shared values and common objectives). Originality/value Cyprus represents one of the longest running conflicts and, in addition, one of the longest running peacekeeping missions of the UN. This paper explains how unique features of the peace research approach to peacebuilding contributes to producing more positive results in what has heretofore been a deadlock in the divided community of Cyprus. Thus, this paper provides an indication of how the lessons learned by peace researchers in the Cyprus micro context contribute to addressing macro-level IR challenges (e.g. north-south and east-west challenges that occur because of outlooks in the proverbial other).

Purpose This paper aims to examine how leaders’ avoidance influences followers’ attitudes and well-being in China. Although conflict avoidance is one of the most commonly used conflict resolution styles in China, there has surprisingly been no explicit investigation of the effects of leaders’ avoidance. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from 245 subordinates in three large companies in the People’s Republic of China through an online survey. Multiple regression analysis was adopted to test three sets of competing hypotheses. Findings Leaders’ avoidance behavior is positively related to followers’ perception of justice, supervisory trust and emotional well-being in Chinese organizations. Originality/value This paper joins growing attempts to consider conflict management in the context of leadership. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to examine empirically the relationships between a team leader’s avoidance behavior and his or her subordinates’ perceptions of justice, supervisory trust and emotional well-being in a single study. The findings are provoking by illustrating positive effect of leader’s conflict avoidance behavior in China. This paper supports that conflict avoidance could be a sustainable rather than one-off strategy by a leader, and that identifying conditions (e.g. culture) that affect the outcomes of conflict avoidance is important.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to offer tools and techniques to resolve organizational conflicts amicably. Design/methodology/approach The paper explains types, merits and demerits of conflicts. It outlines innovative tools and techniques to resolve conflicts. It unveils five conflict management styles. It draws a blueprint to resolve conflicts amicably. Findings It enlightens that conflicts cannot be eliminated in organizations. They can only be minimized if leaders adopt proactive attitude. Practical implications The tools and techniques to resolve conflicts can be applied in any industry and in any size of organization. Social implications The social implications of this research suggest that leaders can resolve conflicts amicably with people-orientation without compromising their goals and objectives. Originality/value It offers appropriate conflict-handling styles and modes as per the conflict and context. It offers practical ideas and innovative tools and techniques to resolve conflicts.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of three important group process variables, namely, agreement-seeking behavior, group trust, and cognitive diversity, on decision outcomes. In addition, it seeks to examine the role of process conflict as a moderator in the relationship between agreement-seeking behavior and team effectiveness; agreement-seeking behavior and decision commitment; cognitive diversity and team effectiveness; and cognitive diversity and decision commitment. Design/methodology/approach Using a structured survey instrument, this paper gathered data from 160 students enrolled in a strategic management capstone course that features strategic decision making in a simulated business strategy game. The data from 41 teams were collected from the student population using a carefully administered instrument, and the data were aggregated only after appropriate inter-rater agreement tests were run. Findings Results show that the group process variables are positively related to decision outcomes. The data support the view that process conflict acts as a moderator in the relationship between agreement-seeking behavior and team effectiveness and decision commitment. Further, the results support that cognitive diversity has a positive impact on decision commitment and team effectiveness. Process conflict, which acts as a deterrent, is outweighed by the presence of agreement-seeking behavior. Research limitations/implications Since the present research is based on self-report measures, the limitations of social desirability bias and common method bias are inherent. However, sufficient care is taken to minimize these limitations. The research has implications for both the conflict management and strategic decision-making process literatures. Practical implications This study contributes to both practicing managers and the strategic management literature. The study suggests that administrators should select those teams who are prone to agreement-seeking behavior; and team members who trust one another. Administrators need not unduly avoid process conflict because diversity in opinions and thinking and agreement-seeking behavior outweigh the negative effects of process conflict. Social implications The findings from the study will be useful for creating congenial social environment in the organizations. Originality/value This study provides new insights about the previously unknown effects of process conflict in strategic decision-making process.

Purpose The purpose of the paper is to develop a theoretical framework with testable propositions discussing the role of counterfactual thinking in fostering accurate decision-making in groups and preventing catastrophes, being mediated by information searching, sharing, task conflict and conflict management mechanisms, moderated by task complexity, cognitive complexity, cognitive closure and tolerance of ambiguity. Design/methodology/approach A theoretical framework is formulated and propositions are postulated involving independent, mediating, moderating and dependent variables. Findings This paper recommends a helpful framework for understanding of how counterfactual thinking affects information searching, sharing and decision-making accuracy in groups, thereby preventing catastrophes. Practical/implications The proposed framework might be of assistance in managing complex group decision-making and information sharing in organizations. Decision-makers may become aware that activating counterfactual mind-set enables them to search for critical information facilitating accurate decision-making in groups leading to catastrophe prevention. Originality/value This paper adds value to the field of counterfactual thinking theory applied to group decision-making. Moreover, the paper provides a novel framework for group decision-making which sheds light on pertinent variables, which can either ameliorate or exacerbate the accuracy of decision-making by information searching and sharing in groups under varying context of high/low task complexity. The ramifications of task conflict, conflict management mechanisms, team diversity and size are explored alongside the moderating role of cognitive complexity, cognitive closure and tolerance for ambiguity.

PurposeThis paper aims to clarify the relationship between conflict, apologies, forgiveness and willingness to cooperate after a conflict event.Design/methodology/approachThe paper used scenarios and quantitative measures to examine the connection between conflict, perceived apology sincerity, forgiveness and willingness to cooperate in 358 business undergraduates.FindingsData revealed that relationship conflict was significantly but negatively associated with forgiveness and willingness to cooperate. Additionally, attitudes toward forgiveness were directly and positively related not only to forgiveness but also to willingness to cooperate. Finally, forgiveness mediated the link between both perceived apology sincerity attitudes to forgiveness and willingness to cooperate.Research limitations/implicationsData were cross-sectional and may be subject to bias. Longitudinal studies are needed to further tease out the connection between the variables in the current study. Similarly, future research should explore the role of climate and individuals’ disposition and readiness to apologize, forgive and their willingness to cooperate at work.Practical implicationsThe paper includes practical implications for managers interested in eliciting cooperation after a workplace conflict. Specifically, apology and forgiveness should be included in managers’ conflict management training programs.Social implicationsOur findings indicated that apology and forgiveness are social skills that are important for conflict management and cooperation after a workplace conflict.Originality/valueBeyond reconciliation, the current study provides new insights into the important role of actual forgiveness in whether employees are willing to cooperate after conflict at work. Practical assistance is offered to managers who are interested in fostering cooperation and increased performance after conflict episodes.

Purpose – This paper aims to explore the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI), conflict management styles and job performance in a Chinese cultural context. Design/methodology/approach – The present paper uses a cross-sectional research design. Paper-based questionnaires were distributed to employees working in the R & D department of a science and technology institute in Taiwan. In total, 300 questionnaires were distributed and 248 valid questionnaires were analyzed, with a return rate of 81.4 per cent. Findings – The results show that EI has a positive impact on job performance. Furthermore, agreeable conflict style positively moderated between EI and job performance, whereas active conflict style has negative moderating effect. Research limitations/implications – Due to the research design, sample and data collection method, the research results may lack representativeness. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to use a different approach in the future. Practical implications – Organizations should strengthen employees’ EI and conflict management abilities to improve job performance. Organizations can apply the results of this study in accordance with their policy on recruitment, selection and training. Originality/value – Organizations should strengthen employees’ EI and conflict management abilities to improve job performance. Organizations can apply the results of this study in accordance with their policies on recruitment, selection and training.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify the roles of trait affectivity and momentary moods in conflict frames and conflict management. This paper goes beyond affect induction and focuses on the affective – rather than rational – antecedents of the choice of conflict management strategy. Design/methodology/approach – This paper adopts a within- and between-person approach and uses hierarchical linear modeling to test the hypotheses with group-mean centering. Over the course of 12 days within a three-week period, the authors collected participants’ momentary moods and how they thought about and would respond to conflict scenarios. Data were gathered from 1,545 observations, involving 180 individuals. Findings – After controlling for anger raised from the conflict scenario, both positive trait affectivity and positive momentary moods were found to be positively related to a compromise frame. Surprisingly, neither negative trait affectivity nor momentary mood was related to the win frame. A compromise frame predicted a cooperative strategy, and a win frame predicted a competitive strategy. The relationships between trait and momentary affects and conflict management strategy were partially mediated by conflict frame, but only for positive affects. Practical implications – If seeking a constructive resolution, choose the right person (i.e. an individual with positive trait affectivity) and the right moment (i.e. the individual is in a positive mood state) to communicate disagreements. Originality/value – This paper sheds light on the prediction of conflict frame and conflict management behavior by testing trait affectivity and momentary mood simultaneously.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to employ a Yin-Yang harmony perspective to propose a novel circled 5C model to understand the unique harmonizing process of how conflicts are resolved in China. Despite increasing research on labor conflicts in Chinese manufacturing, Western theories still can not explain how Chinese culture influences conflict management. Design/methodology/approach – The authors investigate a large manufacturer where a severe labor strike happened in South China. A mixed-methods research design is adopted. The scale of Chinese harmony and analysis of variance are used to identify the underlying unharmonious factors triggering the labor strike. The grounding theory approach (a case study) was adopted to further examine the proposed 5C model. Findings – “Harmony with corporate system”, “Harmony between departments” and “Harmony with firm leader” were found to arouse employee grievances the most. Differences in age, gender, marital status, educational level, tenure and position were discovered to affect workers’ perceptions of workplace harmony. The proposed 5C model was supported. Practical implications – As a lesson in handling escalating labor conflicts, this study allows foreign investors to better understand how to cope with relevant labor strife issues in China. In addition, this project integrates research with consultancy service, which can be seen as an exciting step forward in bridging academics and practitioners. Originality/value – Based on Yin-Yang harmony thinking, this study suggests an integrative, context-specific concern – concern for harmony for China to transcend the Western dual-concern model regarding the choice of coping with conflicts. The paper constructs a novel circled 5C model of the Chinese harmonizing process (conflict, clash, communication, comprise and consensus), which characterizes the dynamic, contingent and art-oriented nature of Chinese conflict management.

Purpose– This paper aims to examine the use of Cross-Functional Bridge (CFB) in dyadic relationships towards enhancing organisational performance. Prior research has flagged conflict in interfunctional relationships. Research on managing such conflict context is, however, limited.Design/methodology/approach– Analysing 20 in-depth interviews conducted in UK financial services organisations, this study explains how the CFB is used to manage interfunctional relationship conflict and enhance performance.Findings– This study underlines three core insights about intragroup working relationship: cultural and disciplinary differences and boundary fencing are core features of, and conflict drivers in, the accounting – marketing interface; CFB is a tool for analysing and managing these conflict drivers; and organisations that use this tool achieve improved organisational performance, an outcome that is enhanced and sustained through the team psychological enhancement factor of the conflict management strategy. Also, this study underlines the need to ensure a fit between conflict management strategy and conflict types.Research limitations/implications– This research has several limitations. It explores only accounting – marketing working relationship in UK financial services organisations. Also, it explores only relationship conflict and cultural and disciplinary diversity and boundary fencing factors. Finally, this study suggests a mediating influence of psychological well-being on the CFB – performance link, a conclusion that is based on a methodologically inadequate tool: causes and effects associations are better assessed quantitatively (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004).Practical implications– The paper highlights insights for analysing and resolving conflicts towards harmonious dyadic relationships. Importantly, managers who use the flagged CFB tool would achieve psychological enhancement in team, and extendedly enhanced organisational performance. Managers are reminded of the need to adequately address the emotional substances in relationship conflicts, as failure to do this will lead to conflict escalation, transformation and negative performance.Originality/value– The paper offers theory testing and theory building knowledge. The CFB insight is a major highlight, one that lays a brick for future development, especially concerning itsmodus operandi, motivators and how to maximize its performance value.

Purpose – Computer-mediated communication systems (CMCSs) have become the standard for supporting virtual teamwork. However, interpersonal trust formation though CMCSs is impaired due to limited media richness of the communication channels. The aim of this paper is to identify trust forming cues that occur naturally in face-to-face environments and are suitable to include in CMCSs design, to facilitate greater trust in virtual teams. Design/methodology/approach – To select cues that had a strong effect on fostering trust behaviour, a non-participatory ethnographic study was conducted. Two student teams at the University of Waterloo were observed for 6-12 months. Researchers identified mechanisms used for building trust and bridging team developmental barriers. Findings – The paper identifies five trust tokens that were effective in developing trust and bridging team developmental barriers: expertise, recommendations, social capital, willingness to help/benevolence, and validation of information. These behavioural cues, or behavioural trust tokens, which are present in face-to-face collaborations, carry important trust supporting information that leads to increased trust, improved collaboration, and knowledge integration. These tokens have the potential to improve CMCSs by supplementing the cues necessary for trust formation in virtual environments. Practical implications – This study identifies important mechanisms used for fostering trust behaviour in face-to-face collaborations that have the potential to be included in the design of CMCSs (via interface design objects) and have implications for interface designers, team managers, and researchers in the field of teamwork. Originality/value – This work presents the first ethnographic study of trust between team members for the purpose of providing improved computer support for virtual collaboration via redesigned interface components.

Purpose – What is the discipline's current grasp of cognitive biases in negotiation processes? What lessons can be drawn from this body of literature? The purpose of this paper is to review and discuss the limited research on cognitive biases in the context of negotiations. Design/methodology/approach – This article reviews research from judgment and decision-making, conflict management, psychology, and management literatures to systematize what we already know about cognitive biases in negotiations. Findings – Decision-making studies have mainly identified 21 biases that may lead to lower quality decisions. Only five of those biases have been studied relating to negotiations: the anchoring, the overconfidence, the framing, the status quo and the self-serving bias. Moreover, negotiation literature has identified five additional biases that affect negotiation processes: the fixed-pie error, the incompatibility error, the intergroup bias, the relationship bias and the toughness bias. Biased behavior differs across cultures and emotional mood. Research limitations/implications – Implications for future research include building comprehensive models of how negotiators can overcome cognitive biases, studying interconnections between different biases, and increasing complexity of the studies to provide practitioners with more practical advice. Originality/value – The literature reviewed in this paper spans diverse disciplines and perspectives. This paper can be a starting point for researchers interested in understanding how cognitive biases affect negotiations. Moreover, it could be a starting point for future research on this field.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present the state-of-the-art in empirical research on constructive controversy in the context of business organizations and to outline strategic implications both for research and practical application. Design/methodology/approach – Literature search on constructive controversy in relevant databases identified 33 empirical publications from 1980 to 2009. The paper analyzes and summarizes characteristics of the studies, methodological approaches, and empirical findings. Findings – The literature review reveals that most studies are conducted in the industrial and service sector. Authors mostly apply a quantitative approach using interviews, experiments, and surveys. Empirical findings show that constructive controversy supports decision making, learning, interpersonal relationships, and productivity. In most cases goal interdependence is taken as independent variable. Research limitations/implications – There is a need for further consolidating the findings either by experimental verification or by field studies. A processual and longitudinal approach should be emphasized and the methodical repertory should be expanded by applying qualitative methods like observation. There is a need for expanding the scope of constructs and analyzing post-modern collaboration forms. Linking controversy to organizational processes like organizational learning would lead to a deeper understanding of innovation processes in organizations. Practical implications – The implementation of the controversy procedure can support organizational processes like decision making, problem solving, learning, and innovation. This offers opportunities to expand the research field. Originality/value – This article provides a systematic review on constructive controversy in the business context for the first time.

PurposeResearch from numerous theories shows teams' information sharing and discussion enhances effectiveness. Likewise, team communication structure can increase information sharing, manage conflict productively and foster creativity. However, the lack of unifying theory hinders understanding of the disparate research findings. Agazarian aims to unify the field with her meta‐theoretical, multi‐level Theory of Living Human Systems (TLHS). Furthermore, her TLHS‐derived Systems‐Centered Training (SCT) presents an innovative structure to improve team performance. The purpose of this paper is to compare the verbal process, productivity, and creativity of pre‐existing work groups using SCT methods or Robert's Rules of Order (RRO), to test TLHS/SCT reliability and validity.Design/methodology/approachThe verbal characteristics, information sharing, productivity, and creativity in SCT and RRO teams were compared using the System for Analyzing Verbal Interaction (SAVI), Group Productivity Scale and Work Group Inventory.FindingsSCT teams, compared to groups using RRO, talked in ways more likely to transfer and integrate task‐related information. Furthermore, SCT teams were more productive, better performing, and more creative.Research limitations/implicationsThe study's design does not permit cause‐and‐effect conclusions. Proposals for future research are made.Practical implicationsThe results suggest SCT methods improve team communication, productivity, and creativity. Because this study examined “real‐world” teams, the findings may apply to similar groups in various workplaces.Social implicationsHaving the ability to use differences as resources could improve society.Originality/valueThis paper suggests SCT methods offer innovative communication structures that focus teams effectively, perhaps by minimizing off‐task communications and conflict. Also, as SCT operationally defines TLHS, these results support the validity of TLHS.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to illustrate how scholars may adopt a multi‐method – not just multidisciplinary – approach on research on conflict management. Taking the Diaoyu Islands as a case, the author draws on literature from management, political sciences, war, military studies, history, etymology and culture. In the process, the author deepens, enriches and expands the Thomas‐Kilman (T‐K) model for mapping out possible solutions in resolving conflicts: not just between people at workplaces but for between states as well. For instance, the author explains why the Diaoyu Islands conflict, if not amicably resolved may well lead to obliteration (integrated as part of the model) in resolving the conflict via a nuclear outbreak. Third World War may just be sparked off with Russia aligned with China against Japan and the USA.Design/methodology/approachOf all the issues in management, conflict management is the most culturally embedded. Through a multi‐method approach, the author illuminates the complexity of the Diaoyu Islands case. Literature from past empirical war studies are reviewed to suggest the geography of the islands (proximity, borderless, richness of resources) makes war highly probable. Past Chinese‐Japanese hatred (utilizing visual imagery), antagonism and guanxi are reviewed in exploring their impacts on outcomes (see model). Etymological research is attempted using English, Japanese and Chinese words, characters and pictograms that are related to concepts within the T‐K model. To better grasp how young Chinese feel towards the Diaoyu Islands and the Japanese, the author conducted some field research in Harbin, China. The continuing Chinese angst against Japanese is explained through war imagery: there remains in young Chinese an unquenchable thirst for exacting revenge on the Japanese. In a search to uncover ways of resolving the dispute, a further, extended study is undertaken on ancient Chinese pictograms: for example, whether a 5,000 years old Chinese concept of compromise zhe zhong (Graphic 1; oracular bones) or splitting into halves may be relevant. The role of time in conflict management is discussed in relation to the Diaoyu Islands.FindingsBy providing the WWII visual imagery as a backdrop to Chinese‐Japanese antagonism, the author explains to readers why the Diaoyu Islands is such a complex case to resolve. Also in his fieldwork, he highlights that the younger Chinese are as equally indignant about Japanese unethical grabbing, “thieving” behaviour. In their minds, such behaviour harks back to the blatant seizure of Manchuria and Japanese puppetry of Manchukuo. Through the Diaoyu Islands case, the T‐K model and theory of conflict management is broadened, enriched and enhanced. The paper illustrates how in conflicts that involve cultures are very different from the West, for instance very ancient civilizations like China and India, authors should take a multi‐method approach and explore the issues and search for solutions far more deeply.Originality/valueVery few scholars seek to integrate the two streams of research in resolving conflict as illustrated through this paper: management and social sciences (e.g. political sciences, military and war studies). Conflict is about people and therefore integral use of multi‐methods needs to be used.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to propose research‐based principles of conflict management that are grounded in practical experience.Design/methodology/approachThe paper presents a review of literature on topics related to each of four proposed conflict management principles as well as practical advice on implementing the principles.FindingsThe principles are as follows: take action early in the conflict cycle; use ground rules to encourage productive discussion of disagreements; discuss substantive conflict issues openly with the entire group; and discuss interpersonal conflict issues with the entire group only if doing so is concurrent with the purpose, time availability, and skill set of the group.Practical implicationsThe principles should be useful to anyone who works with or on teams.Originality/valueThis paper provides a useful review of literature and proposes four conflict management principles that are based on research and grounded in practice.

PurposeIn this viewpoint, the authors argue that the predominant method of analyzing conflict management focuses too heavily on the managerial interests in administrative efficiency and productivity rather than on the needs of individuals and organizations. The aim of this paper is to employ Weber's analysis of conflict systems, specifically the distinction between formal and substantive rationality, to support the authors’ view.Design/methodology/approachThis is a viewpoint, where content is dependent on the author's opinion and interpretation.FindingsConflict management based on Weber's theories of formal and substantive rationality will benefit organizations and society by promoting a more positive perception of corporate behavior.Research limitations/implicationsFuture research could examine the relationship between organizational justice and the more global concepts of formality and rationality. Similarly, future research on justice may be expanded by through the notion and perception of legitimacy by members of the organization. How employees accept a system as fair and just has potential import for future justice research.Practical implicationsThe combination of formal and substantive rationality offers a practical, and meaningful, way of dealing with conflict from a personal orientation as well as an organizational one. It orients conflict resolution toward people rather than productivity concerns. It further safeguards organizational interests by minimizing litigation, negative publicity, and other adverse effects of conflict.Originality/valueWeber theorized that formal rationality requires organizations to develop clear, objective, and universal procedures in order to carry out administrative routines. Substantive rationality, in contrast, acknowledges that specific cases may demand particularized decision‐making focusing on individual cases. The paper draws on the procedural justice literature to show how these procedures can be implemented in a fair manner.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the relationship between Thomas‐Kilmann's Conflict Management Modes (CMM) and Fiedler's Leadership Style (LS) measures, both in the data, and from the theoretical perspective. Based on the conceptual similarities, the authors first propose the existence of a relationship between Thomas‐Kilmann's CMM and Fiedler's LS measures, then establish the presence of the relationship, based on a dataset of Estonian managers.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use a unique dataset of 343 leaders and specialists from different Estonian organizations, on both Thomas‐Kilmann's CMM and Fiedler's Least Preferred Co‐worker test. The data were analyzed by multivariate methods.FindingsThe results indicate that leaders who are task‐oriented, according to Fiedler's model, tend to use more competing as the dominant CMM, while relationship‐oriented leaders are more accommodating. The authors also analyze the effect of individual characteristics, finding that younger managers are more task‐oriented while older ones are typically relationship‐oriented and conflict avoiding; women are more collaborative and less conflict avoiding, and men tend to use the accommodating mode more than women. Surprisingly, women tend to be more competitive.Originality/valueThis is the first study to establish a relationship between Fiedler's Leadership Style and Thomas‐Kilmann's Conflict Mode Instrument. This relationship can potentially be used for assessing the reliability and validity of measurements. The particular shape of it may be used to analyze the links between conflicts, relationships and assertiveness. Additionally, the paper provides an empirical analysis of conflict management habits and leadership styles of Estonian managers.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine how the rational and experiential systems according to the cognitive‐experiential self theory (CEST) are related to conflict‐handling styles.Design/methodology/approachUsing a correlational design, data were collected using an on‐line survey system examining CEST information‐processing systems and five conflict‐handling styles. A total of 426 undergraduate students, with paid jobs, complete the on‐line survey.FindingsResults showed that the rational system, experiential system and constructive thinking had significant positive relationships with both the integrating and compromising conflict‐handling styles. Additionally, the rational system had a positive relationship with the dominating conflict‐handling style and the experiential system and constructive thinking had a positive relationship with the obliging conflict‐handling style. The rational system and constructive thinking had a negative relationship with the avoiding conflict‐handling style.Research limitations/implicationsThe study established a positive connection between CEST information‐processing systems and conflict‐handling styles among undergraduate students, however the results of the study may not be as directly comparable with real and established leaders.Originality/valueBeing the first study to examine the connection between the CEST information‐processing systems and the five conflict‐handling styles, the paper offers interesting insights about how the choice of information‐processing systems can influence the choice of conflict‐handling styles across a wide range of situations.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to present practical difficulties in attempting to implement a partnering approach.Design/methodology/approachThe paper comprises empirical evidence from case studies in Norway and Canada and an extensive literature review on partnering.FindingsThe authors identified a lack of shared understanding of key partnering concepts, missing initial effort to establish shared ground rules, communication difficulties in inter‐organizational relationships and unclear (perceived) roles and responsibilities. In existing partnering literature, a large number of construction studies have identified conceptual partnering models. However, studies that describe partnering models to take these practical difficulties into account have not been found and the paper develops a practical model that outlines the phases of a typical partnering effort.Research limitations/implicationsPartnering has both a legal/contractual side and a management/collaboration side. This paper looks at the management and collaboration aspects of partnering only.Practical implicationsThe paper will be a very useful source of information and advice for project managers who are attempting to implement partnering in projects.Originality/valueThe paper presents organizational challenges and difficulties in attempting to implement partnering and a practical model which takes these difficulties into account.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine whether victim and offender conflict management styles (yielding and forcing) predict forgiveness following an interpersonal transgression and apology. Perceived offender remorse, expectation of reoffending, and transgression severity along with trait empathy were also examined as potential mediators of conflict style effects and as direct predictors of forgiveness.Design/methodology/approachIn total, 112 Australian adults completed a questionnaire including a written scenario describing a hypothetical transgression perpetrated either by a forcing‐ or yielding‐prone offender.FindingsOffender conflict style was significantly related to forgiveness, with the yielding‐offender compared to forcing‐offender scenario resulting in higher forgiveness, an effect fully mediated by perceived offender remorse. Additionally, perceived offender remorse, transgression severity and likelihood of reoffending, and participant empathic concern added to predictions of forgiveness.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper highlights how an offender's conflict style may lead to perceptions by an injured party that the offender is less remorseful following a specific offence and apology. Individuals with a history of dominating, competitiveness and self serving may need to modify their conflict resolution methods, or explicitly demonstrate sincere remorse, in order to elicit forgiveness from an injured party following interpersonal transgressions.Originality/valueThis study is the first, to the authors' knowledge, to examine how an offender's tendency to yield or force during conflict affects an injured party's decision to forgive following a transgression and apology and to provide an explanation of this relationship. Findings are potentially useful to clinicians, mediators, negotiators and managers in facilitating better interpersonal or workplace relationships.

PurposeResearchers suggest that trust building may be challenging in the face of conflict. However, there is an emerging proposition that conflict is critical for trust. Using affective events and attribution theories as a framework, the purpose of this paper is to present a model of the mediating effects of positive emotional arousal and self‐conscious emotions in the relationship between conflict and trust.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from 325 students enrolled in varied postgraduate programs in a large business school. The authors employed Preacher and Hayes's bootstrapping SPSS macros to test the direct and mediation effects of the connection between conflict, emotions and trust.FindingsResults showed that task, relationship and process conflict were associated with differing aspects of positive emotional arousal (enthusiasm, excitement) and self‐conscious emotions (guilt and shame). Similarly, behavioural guilt was linked with trust while emotions mediated the link between conflict and trust.Research limitations/implicationsThe authors acknowledge that there are possible covariates (e.g. how long ago did the conflict occur?) with the variables used in the current study. Future research should include such covariates in the study of the relationship between conflict emotions and trust. Also, the data were largely cross‐sectional, drawn from a relatively small sample. In future, researchers should examine similar constructs with longitudinal data and in large organisational sample. In spite of the above limitations, the validity of the results presented in this paper is not compromised. The study extends self‐conscious emotions literature by demonstrating that guilt and shame have cognitive and behavioural properties and with differing connections with conflict and trust.Practical implicationsThe paper's findings suggest that managers who want to engender trust in conflict situations should stimulate task conflict to arouse enthusiasm and excitement. These discrete emotions are critical for building integrity based trust. Alternatively, by managing reparative emotions of guilt effectively, managers may increase levels of perceived trust. Overall, the results suggest that focusing on the effect of conflict on trust without considering the positive emotional arousal and self‐conscious emotions could yield disappointing outcomes.Originality/valueThe study provides new insights into the influence of conflict on trust and the mediating role of emotions (e.g. guilt and shame) in the link between conflict and trust. The paper also offers a practical assistance to individuals interested in building trust, especially in the face of conflict.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to improve current design processes by proposing a new approach based on multi‐criteria optimization of the designed asset. Management of design in construction projects is a complex task since it involves collaboration between professionals in multiple disciplines. Traditionally, designers work with a single solution at a time which is iteratively modified according to the view points of all the consultants. This results in sub‐optimal solutions. A multi‐criteria approach is able to accommodate diverse view points of specialist consultants in a construction project, aiming at a better optimized building system.Design/methodology/approachThe shortcomings of current design practices are analyzed based on a literature review. It is found that current approaches involving single objective optimization or Pareto optimization are not adequate for supporting collaborative design processes. A new approach to managing multiple objectives in design is proposed. This involves performing multi‐objective optimization, presenting a population of good solutions to the design consultants and selecting the best solution through an algorithm called RR‐PARETO2 (Relaxed‐Restricted Pareto) filtering. A software tool with a graphical user interface was developed. An example of the design of a building façade is taken to evaluate the application of this approach.FindingsThe paper provides empirical evidence that a multi‐objective optimization approach is able to provide support for the task of accommodating multiple viewpoints in design. The proposed methodology allows navigation through the solution space and pruning it visually by applying constraints. It is shown that the RR‐PARETO2 is able to select a good compromise solution with the best trade‐offs among all the objectives.Originality/valueThe idea of visualizing and filtering a population of design solutions has been proposed by design researchers for a long time, but is not currently adopted in practice in construction projects. The idea of collaborative filtering of the solution space according to the viewpoints of all the consultants by visually applying constraints on design variables and objectives is a new concept, the ultimate aim being a better balanced built asset. This is the first time the RR‐PARETO2 algorithm has been applied to building design.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to demonstrate insights into cross‐cultural conflict, identity and values amongst selected managers within a South African management context. It aims to increase the understanding of these complexities from an academic managerial perspective, thereby providing in‐depth information which can lead to the development of managerial training tools for improving diversity and conflict management in the described context.Design/methodology/approachThe authors selected qualitative data from a case study that was conducted in the international South African automotive industry. The case study was based on the post‐modernist premise by considering phenomenological and interpretative paradigms most relevant.FindingsFindings show conflicts in managerial communication and treatment, position and competition, organisation, race and gender and are often defined as “cross‐racial” conflict fuelled by the society's past.Research limitations/implicationsThe generalisability is limited to this specific context and needs to be proven by follow‐up studies which expand the context and the methodological approach of the study.Practical implicationsPractical suggestions address the implementation of training tools, coaching and counselling in cross‐cultural conflict management. They are anticipated to create awareness on managing the present challenges and are aimed at managers and international organisations investing in South Africa.Originality/valueThe paper provides new insights into the discussion on human resource management in a specific South African management context by referring to the highly important topics of cross‐cultural conflict, values and identities.