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This paper explores the changes in intergenerational mobility seen in Spain during the last century. It examines educational and occupational mobility, paying particular attention to the existence of a differentiated gender effect. The magnitude of the historical changes that have taken place in Spain during the twentieth century and the scarcity of studies in this field increase the value of this paper. More specifically, the paper seeks to describe how the situation has changed with the social–economic and education policy developments in democratic Spain, especially with regards to women. The main results show that while educational mobility has improved, there has been no such significant change in occupational mobility.

For square contingency tables with ordered categories, there may be some cases that one wants to analyze them by considering collapsed tables with some adjacent categories combined in the original table. This paper proposes three kinds of new models which have the structure of point-symmetry (PS), quasi point-symmetry and marginal point-symmetry for collapsed square tables. This paper also gives a decomposition of the PS model for collapsed square tables. The father's and his daughter's occupational mobility data are analyzed using new models.

According to standard human capital theory firm financed training cannot be explained if skills are of general nature. Nevertheless, investments of firms into general training can be observed and there has been a large literature to explain this puzzle, mostly referring to imperfect labor market issues. In German speaking countries firms invest heavily into apprenticeship training although it is assumed to be general. In our paper, we study the question to what extent apprenticeship training is general at all. Our paper for the first time studies how specificity of training may be defined based on Lazear's skill-weights approach. In our empirical part we use a unique German Qualification Survey, containing extensive information about the required skills at a workplace. We build occupation-specific skill-weights and find that the more specific the skill portfolio in an occupation is in comparison to the general labor market, the higher are the net costs firms have to bear for apprenticeship training in the respective occupations. At the same time, the more specific the skill requirements are in an occupation, the smaller is the probability of an occupational change during an employee's entire career. Due to the new definition of occupational specificity, we thus find that apprenticeship training - formerly seen as general training - is very heterogeneous in its specificity.

On the basis of inter-cohort comparisons, this paper describes patterns of intra-generational occupational mobility in Germany and their long-term trends since World War II. It also presents conceptual links between individual mobility and developments of inequality along the life course, with a special focus on the question of the extent to which employment careers are characterised by specific forms of cumulative advantage and disadvantage. Finally, it is asked how intra-generational developments are related to inter-generational social mobility. The paper also discusses how mobility patterns can be linked to specific institutions which – together with labour market conditions – are crucial determinants of the development of inequality within a cohort. In its empirical part, the paper presents evidence from cohort-specific analyses based on life-course data from a broad range of West German birth cohorts.

This paper investigates the patterns and determinants of women's mobility into and out of male-dominated occupations in Puerto Rico during a period of rapid development between the 1950s and the early 1980s. The paper uses data from the Puerto Rico Fertility and Family Planning Assessment of 1982, which includes detailed retrospective calendar histories of women's employment and other life-course changes. An event history approach allows an examination of the effects of human capital, family status, socialization, and opportunity structure in the labor market on women's entry into male-dominated occupations and their subsequent shifts to other occupations. The findings indicate that women's entry into male-dominated occupations increased for first jobs during this period of economic development, and there was modest cross gender-type mobility among women who experienced job changes. Finally, the variables more directly tapping labor-supply factors show stronger effects on women's labor-force beha...

This paper examines the career progress of female principals in Greek secondary schools and the under‐representation of women in management positions. Drawing on in‐depth interviews with six women principals in Athens, the paper considers the factors affecting women's participation in school management. The findings demonstrate that women are greatly under‐represented in secondary school management positions. The main reasons for this disadvantage are personal factors, covert discrimination, gender stereotypes and constraints experienced through their socially defined roles.

HARDILL I. and MACDONALD S. (2000) Skilled international migration: the experience of nurses in the UK, Reg. Studies 34, 681-692. This paper reports on a study of the most feminized of professions, nursing. Current shortages of nurses within the UK National Health Service (NHS) have resulted in the recruitment of increasing numbers of overseas-qualified nurses. The study is based on the biographies of overseas-qualified nurses, obtained through in-depth interviews carried out in one case study hospital. Using these personal narratives, this paper illuminates the complex interweaving of economic and non-economic factors involved in migration decisions. Most nurses migrated as solos, experienced downward occupational mobility, and are used as a temporary stop-gap to fill labour shortages. HARDILL I. et MACDONALD S. (2000) La migration internationale des ouvriers qualifies: etude de cas des infirmieres britanniques, Reg. Studies 34, 681-692. Cet article fait un compte-rendu d'une etude de la profession la pl...

This paper examines evidence on occupational movement in England using data from the New Earnings Panel Dataset. Although most occupations are characterized by a high degree of immobility, there is some evidence of an increase in occupational mobility between 1990 and 1994. Using a compound Poisson modelling approach for count data combined with a gravity model, the paper investigates the incentives and constraints upon aggregate movement between occupations over two time periods, 1985–90 and 1990–94. Results suggest that the responsiveness of movement into a wide range of occupations as a result of a rise in wages is relatively elastic for males and relatively inelastic for females. The paper also demonstrates that significant barriers to movement exist, which either prevent a response to market signals or inhibit the extent of that response.

In this article, we focus on the transformations imposed on schools by individual parents, arguing that schools as modern organisations change not only through top-down pressures orchestrated by an array of international organisations, for-profit companies and media as shown in previous research, but also through the agency of mobile parents, who seek to import reforms from elsewhere, based on their previous schooling experiences abroad. We focus on a specific group of middle class parents, who are continuously mobile, moving between global cities for employment. This paper brings into the discussion the role of individual parental strategies as they seek to promote education policy-borrowing. By applying the theoretical lens of stakeholder identification and salience, using a multi case study research design, we suggest that parents express high levels of power, legitimacy and a sense of urgency, thus being able to successfully advocate for change. We argue that while exploring organisational reform occurring due to the globalisation of education, we must view parents as central actors in this new space.

This paper provides descriptive information regarding the composition of the Latinx population of the United States. I note differences in educational attainment and occupational mobility confirmin...

This paper examines masculinity, migration and the changing occupational status of nursing through the lens of therapeutic mobilities; health related mobilities of people (nurses) and products (cre...

This paper investigates the creation of an unlikely education hub in Manila, Philippines, where local institutions have seen a growing number of international students from Korea, India, and the Mi...

Using retrospective work-family survey data and the event-history analysis technique, this paper explores the determinants of interfirm mobility i.e. the factors influencing the firm changing decisions of women in their early careers. In particular, it explores the extent to which family events, such as marriage and first childbirth, affect women’s working duration in firms and, consequently, their decision to change jobs. Based on a sample of 295 married women, drawn from Information Technology-Information Technology Enabled Services (IT-ITES) firms in New Delhi and the National Capital Region, the findings show that, amongst individual-level characteristics, children significantly decline women’s interfirm mobility rates, but marriage does not. Amongst firm-level characteristics, lower levels of job position and promotion significantly increase interfirm mobility, whilst rotating shifts, the IT-ITES sector and good working conditions significantly decline interfirm mobility rates. The study does not find that women are less mobile. It, however, takes longer for mothers to change firms due to childcare responsibilities and the extensive searching is required to find a company with standard working hours. This study concludes that women advance their careers by maximizing both status and income rewards through interfirm mobility. The data, however, cannot demonstrate the exact rewards-gain women receive upon changing employers.

This paper analyses occupational mobility in the labour market using survey data from a headhunting company. Four aspects of occupational mobility are discussed: the frequency of occupational mobility, cross-industry mobility, cross-ownership mobility and the influence of the macro economy on occupational mobility. The following are our findings: (1) educational level may insignificantly or negatively influence occupational mobility; (2) the younger generation is more active in the labour market; (3) although the public sector provides stable job opportunities, labour mobility in the first five years is not lower in the public sector than in the private sector; and (4) Party members are more frequently occupationally mobile.

This paper, consisting of two parts, presents an analysis of the current state of Markov model , building for intragenerational occupational mobility. Part One examines theories of careers and Part Two theories of continuously operative job systems. Stress is given to the empirical support of the models and to the cumulative development of theory. Among the paper's findings are that several models proposed to span both occupational and geographical mobility have used only migration data; that analytic development is more cumulative for career models; and that there exists a basic divergence of findings from tests of models of careers and continuously operative job systems. In Part One we focus on individual behavior or subaggregates (cohorts).

This paper contextualizes racial and ethnic identities in shaping African women’s work lives in the USA. While the literature on black immigrant groups has posited that ethnic identities are often deployed to shield black immigrants from racism, my findings indicate that for a group of African women, their racial and ethnic identities are viewed as potential sources of discrimination. As black immigrant women from middle-class backgrounds in their home countries, they also articulate experiences with racism and downward social and occupational mobility. Accounting for how race and ethnicity intersect in the lives of black immigrant groups can nuance our understanding of racial identities and highlight diversity in experiences among national and regional groups. Focusing on particular health-care settings further suggests the importance of professional contexts in shaping the identity formations of recent black immigrants.

This paper studies the upward occupational mobility trajectories of immigrant women performing unskilled work as a first job in Spain. The goals of the research are to go beyond the debate that focuses on the structural elements that condition their labour trajectories in Spain and to include both personal factors and the way in which these women use their agency in order to shape their labour trajectories. We have opted for a mixed-method approach, using data from the National Immigrant Survey ENI-2007, combined with 42 socio-biographical interviews with immigrant women from Latin America living in the metropolitan areas of Barcelona and Madrid.

This paper examines job turnover among US university presidents from 2001–2006. Using data from the American Council of Education's Survey of American College Presidents, this analysis finds that p...

Studies of intergenerational class mobility and of intragenerational occupational mobility have of late tended to diverge in their concerns and methodology. This reflects assumptions regarding the increasing part played by education in intergenerational mobility and the decreasing part played by class origins in intragenerational mobility, once education is controlled. The paper contributes to the questioning of these assumptions on empirical grounds. Analyses are made of the occupational mobility of men in three British birth cohorts over the course of their earlier working lives. We find that while educational qualifications have a strong effect on occupational attainment, this effect does not increase across the three cohorts; that class origins also have a significant effect, and one that does not decrease across the cohorts; and that features of work-life experience, in particular the frequency of occupational changes, likewise have a persisting effect, independently of both education and cl...

During the post-liberalization period the Indian tea industry has been facing a severe crisis. This study looks at the question of inter-generational occupational mobility among tea garden labour in Assam, against the backdrop of, on the one hand, a fall in tea auction prices, decline in exports, and closure and abandonment of tea gardens; and on the other hand, increasing labour unrest, at times leading to violent protests and confrontations, declining living standards and worsening human security in the tea gardens. On the basis of data collected through first-hand primary research in three tea gardens of upper Assam, the paper analyses limitations on the inter-generational occupational mobility of tea garden labourers. We also probe into the reasons behind the relative mobility or immobility of tea garden labourers within and outside the tea gardens.

The recognition of qualifications in regulated professions has a relatively long history within the EEC and EU. It begins with Sectoral Directives that were underpinned by a general aim to harmonise educational programmes so that automatic recognition could be facilitated. When harmonisation proved too challenging, the General Directives System, which put the professional recognition of migrants’ qualifications on a case by case basis without prior harmonisation of education, was introduced. The paper overviews this history, before describing some of the difficulties that have been encountered during implementation of the General Directives in the Netherlands, along with some of the results of that implementation. Finally, some general remarks and observations are offered, with regard to the working of the system and the particular situation in the Netherlands.

Summary This paper investigates the extent of overseas migration by British chemists over the period 1887–1971. Notwithstanding the ‘brain drain’ alarms of the 1960s, overseas employment was characteristic of some 19% of British chemists’ careers throughout our period, though its nature changed considerably. Our study examines the overseas employment histories of four cohorts of members of the [Royal] Institute of Chemistry in the ‘Chemists’ Database’ at the Open University. Those employed abroad were not only highly qualified but also both geographically mobile and occupationally versatile. Over the period, the pattern of chemists’ migration was broadly similar to that of British migration trends more generally. Except in the interwar years, chemists’ rate of migration was relatively constant. However, the length of time they spent abroad declined markedly over the period: long-term migration became less characteristic than short-term overseas employment for purposes of career development. From the late ...

This paper hypothesizes that a hierarchy of types of mobility and immobility may be used as an interaction term to determine whether there is evidence of mobility effects beyond those contributed by origin and destination. The dependent variable is a trust scale constructed from responses to three questions that have repeatedly appeared on the General Social Survey. The analysis of data from the GSS, 1972–1994, reveals that some categories of the mobility dummy variable are significant for the 1970s and 1980s, but not for the 1990s. Although the dummy variables for occupational mobility contribute to a model constructed to explain the respondents’ trust of others, father's occupation and respondent's current occupation generally do not. The discussion considers the limitations of a reliance on census occupational categories to study the effects of occupational mobility, and suggests the potential benefits of examining occupational mobility within industries.

This paper focuses on the shifting terrain of mobile researchers beginning with an overview of research and research policy on ‘brain mobility’, and then discussing what we call their optical illusions/delusions. Subsequently, our main purpose is to elaborate on a line of inquiry that offers richer notions of researcher mobility, connectivity and globalisation than those employed in current policies and their usual research base. Indeed we seek to conceptually enrich the field of research on ‘brain mobility’ by bringing it into dialogue with anthropological discussions of cultural globalisation. We argue that global ethnography offers considerable potential as an alternative methodology particularly when accompanied by the notion of global assemblage. We unpack these concepts showing how we are deploying them in a current project of ours which is exploring the contemporary configurations of knowledge, culture and connection that come about through researchers movements, and which seeks to contribute to so...

This paper addresses the influx of computer science graduates from South Asia into Europe and North America. It analyses the need and supply chains between two points and identifies the pros and cons of the education imparted to these graduates. The effects of social disorder due to migrations are addressed. The resulting technological vacuum in the donor countries is also analysed. It concludes with recommendations to reduce the impact on both the donor and receiving countries.

This paper identifies some of the most salient trends in the changing sociological profile of Church of England ordinands over the past 30 years. While the Church itself monitors age and gender, there have been few independent studies carried out since the 1960s which explore these and other variables in any depth. By measuring changes in age, gender, churchmanship, ethnicity, plans for future ministry and setting these alongside wider changes in Church life, occupational mobility in society, and Church policy on ordination training (especially towards families and women's vocations), it is possible to highlight some likely implications for the future. What appears to be predictable with some degree of certainty is the continued growth of the evangelical tradition, increasing involvement in chaplaincy (which itself signals an interesting dynamic in the 'location' of religion and religious professionals in social life), and much more willingness within the Church to experiment with different patterns of mi...

’Intermediate occupations’ describes broadly the range of occupations below the rank of professional and management jobs and above the partly skilled and unskilled occupations and includes craft, technical and supervisory occupations. These are largely differentiated by the levels of education and skill required for entry, the supervisory and technical functions performed within them and the income and standing associated with them. This paper attempts to operationalise the concept of intermediate occupations and draws on two major longitudinal datasets to examine both the extent of mobility and the characteristics of those who move in and out of the intermediate occupation category: the New Earnings Survey Panel Dataset and the National Child Development Study. Against the background of an expansion of the non‐craft intermediate occupations and a contraction of the craft occupations, longitudinal analysis revealed movement upwards from ‘other’ occupations into the non‐craft jobs in increasing nu...

This paper examines and compares the occupational mobility of black and white women who worked in service occupations in the United States in their late teens and 20s. Rather than using a conventional methodology of hypothesis-testing based on a narrow set of variables, the study uses a descriptive methodology to help illuminate the complex interaction of race, gender, and class in the lives of women. Our goal is to investigate how being a service worker when young contributed to a different “life story” for women of different race and class. The study finds that black women experienced considerably less occupational mobility than white women, and were far more likely to get stuck in low-paid service occupations over the long term. Many of the white women, but few of the black, were able to use service work as a temporary means of support while they prepared themselves for more lucrative employment. Striking differences in class background and presence of children appeared to be contributing factors in th...

This paper examines job-related transfers of corporate middle and upper management as an artifact of the values and reward systems of hierarchical organizational structures.We propose that changes in family and organizational values and structures have eroded the basis on which managerial relocation is perceived as essential to upward mobility in the modern corporation. Further, we suggest an alternative paradigm for modifying managerial relocation to better suit changing organizational and family needs.

PROFESSOR BERRY makes a valid point about the appropriate test of significance of gamma. His remarks do not, however, alter the findings or conclusions of my paper. As he notes, the relationships given in the published paper are statistically significant. The crucial question involves those relationships which I reported as nonsignificant and which therefore led me to explore alternatives. Professor Berry suggests that an appropriate test of significance may have revealed a significant relationship between occupational and religious mobility per se. But clearly the chi-square is the appropriate test in this case, for the categories are mobility and nonmobility. The former category can be broken down further into upward and downward mobility. As stated in the article, I did in fact examine these relationships. For instance, in tabulating the relationship between occupational mobility (upward, downward, and nonmobile) and religious mobility (mobile and nonmobile), I found the chi-square value to be 0.54 with two degrees of freedom. The proportion of those religiously mobile was 27.5 percent for the upwardly mobile in occupation, 25.2 percent for the downwardly mobile, and 25.3 percent for the nonmobile. Thus, as reported, I found no relationship between occupational and religious mobility per se. Because of this finding, I turned to an analysis of distance moved. For distance, the appropriate measure of association becomes gamma. And, as Professsor Berry points out, the appropriate test of significance involves the z-score. With respect to the errors and discrepancies in the tables, most were printer's errors.' Regrettably, they were not detected and corrected during proofreading. The discrepancies between tables 1 and 2 are unfortunate but easily explained. Table 1 correctly reported 240 mobiles and 762 nonmobiles. Table 2 has two cells-"other Protestant" and "other or no religion"-which contain, by their very nature, both mobiles and nonmobiles (that is, unlike the other cells, they contain a number of different kinds of religion as well as the category of "no religion" in the last cell). This is difficult to show in the table, but should have been indicated by a footnote, for seven individuals were mobile within those two categories. Obviously, none of the above affects the findings and conclusions of the paper. The statistical point made by Professor Berry is well taken, but the substantive findings of the paper remain as reported.

The decade of the 1970's saw a significant development in the provision of part-time business studies degree courses in the public sector of higher education so that by 1980 sixteen such courses were in operation. This paper is concerned with the background characteristics of the graduates of these courses. It reports the results of a questionnaire study of the 121 students who graduated from the first one (at Middlesex Polytechnic) between 1973 and 1979. Information is presented on the following: age at time of graduating, sex, domestic circumstances, occupational mobility, family background, graduates' perceptions of the contribution of their degrees in terms of both obtaining employment and job performance, relative degree classification and subsequent studies.

As proposed by Bartholomew (1967), occupational mobility should better be represented by semi-Markov processes. In the present paper attempts have been made to develop some new measures of occupational mobility in terms of serai-Markov processes and their values have been studied in the three extreme situations of interest.

institutions throughout the country. This paper analyzes the role of the "assistant to" at a large, state-supported university. Six discrete types of "assistant to" utilization are discussed. The influence and career paths of "assistants to" are examined in relation to each role type. Despite the opportunity to work near high-level educational executives, "assistants to" exercise relatively little influence on their organizations' important decisions and lack articulated ways of advancing their own careers.

Social scientists are frequently confronted with event history data which might be explained by a stochastic process. Examples are deviant behavior, occupational or geographic mobility, marriage dissolution, etc. Sometimes the assumption that the propensity to leave a position depends on the duration in that position seems to be realistic. In these examples one might expect that the rate of leaving a position initially increases, eventually reaches a maximum, and finally decreases again. The extended Poisson model studied in this paper exhibits such a pattern. If arrival time data are available, the parameters of the model can be estimated by maximum likelihood techniques. This model is applied to study deviant behavior and occupational mobility. The results are compared with those from alternative extensions of the Poisson process. Finally, further implications and extensions of this model are discussed.

In this paper we discuss how 'extrema' may be constructed from a given transition matrix. We will deal specifically with the problem of maximum mobility. This is particularly relevant to work in social stratification, concerned with occupational mobility and we shall illustrate our discussion by an intergenerational occupational mobility matrix. The conclusions that can be drawn from the methodological analysis presented here are not, however, limited to this area alone, but may be applied to any problem where there exists a 'transition matrix' and where it is desired to see what it would look like under assumptions of constrained movement (i.e. either maximum or minimum).

This paper examines the effect of migration on the occupational prestige and mobility of about 4000 U.S. men aged 35–64 in 1951. The analysis is based on data from the 1951 Six City Survey of Labor Mobility. The findings show that migrants are superior to non-migrants, with few exceptions, in mean socio-economic statuses. Migrant superiority was due to initial advantages for men 35–44 only. Men over 45 who migrated lost part of their initial advantage relative to non-migrants. The regression slopes describing the relationship among son's education, father's prestige level, and son's 1949 occupational prestige did not differ between migrants and non-migrants. A fairly consistent interaction with age appeared in the data—migrants 45 years and older suffered set-backs in their careers compared to younger migrants.

Previous research has shown that an energy-consumption measure of industrial economy correlates moderately strongly with cross-national variation in the rate of father-to-son occupational mobility when the latter is measured as total or observed mobility but not when only the circulation component of status change is considered. In this paper we extend that line of research by examining the hypothesized relationships of six other measures or correlates of industrial development and growth: population distribution of educational attainments, extent of mass communications, urbanization, rate of geographic mobility, current and capital investments in education, and ethnic-linguistic diversity of population. Results of the analysis reproduce the earlier conclusion.