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Chemical oxygen demand (COD), an important indicative measure of the amount of oxidizable pollutants in wastewater, is often analyzed off-line due to the expensive sensor required for on-line analysis. However, its off-line analysis is time-consuming. An on-line COD estimation method was developed with photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) technology. Based on the on-line data of the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH of wastewater, four different artificial neural network methods were applied to develop working models for COD estimation. Six different batches of sequence batch reactor (SBR) effluent from a paper mill were treated with PEC oxidation for 90 minutes, and 546 data points were collected from the on-line measurements of ORP, DO and pH, and the off-line COD analysis. After having training and validation with 75% and 25% of data, and evaluation with four statistical criteria (R2, RMSE, MAE and MAPE), the estimation results indicated that the developed radial basis neural network (RBNN) model demonstrated the highest precision. Subsequently, the application of the RBNN model to a new batch of SBR effluent from the paper mill revealed that the RBNN model was acceptable for COD estimation during the PEC advanced treatment process of papermaking wastewater, which implied its possible application in the future.

The effects of Mn(II) on Fenton system to treat papermaking wastewater and the mechanism of Mn(II) enhanced Fenton reaction were investigated in this study. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency was enhanced in the presence of Mn(II), which increased by 19% compared with that of the Fenton system alone. The pseudo-first order reaction kinetic rate constant of Mn(II)/Fenton system was 2.11 times higher than that of Fenton system. 67%–81% COD were removed with the increasing Mn(II) concentration from 0 to 0.8 g/L. COD removal efficiency was also enhanced in a wider pH range (3–7), which indicated the operation parameters of Fenton technology could be broadened to a milder condition. The study of the mechanism showed that Mn(II) participated in the oxidation and coagulation stages in Fenton system. In the oxidation stage, Mn(II) promotes the production of HO2•/ O2•−, then HO2•/ O2•− reacts with Fe(III) to accelerate the formation of Fe(II), and finally accelerates the production of HO•. Meantime MnMnO3 and Fe(OH)3 forms in the coagulation stage, facilitating the removal of suspended substances and a large amount of COD, which enhances the overall COD removal of papermaking wastewater. This study provided a detailed mechanism to improve practical applications of Fenton technology.

This study deals with chemical oxygen demand (COD), phenol and Ca +2 removal from paper mill industry wastewater by electrocoagulation (EC) and electro-Fenton (EF) processes. A response surface methodology (RSM) approach was employed to evaluate the effects and interactions of the process variables and to optimize the performance of both processes. Significant quadratic polynomial models were obtained (R 2 = 0.959, R 2 = 0.993 and R 2 = 0.969 for COD, phenol and Ca +2 removal, respectively, for EC and R 2 = 0.936, R 2 = 0.934 and R 2 = 0.890 for COD, phenol and Ca +2 removal, respectively). Numerical optimization based on desirability function was employed; in a 27.55 min trial, 34.7% of COD removal was achieved at pH 9 and current density 96 mA/cm 2 for EC, whereas in a 30 min trial, 74.31% of COD removal was achieved at pH 2 and current density 96 mA/cm 2 and H 2 O 2 /COD molar ratio 2.0 for EF. The operating costs were calculated to be 6.44 €/m 3 for EC and 7.02 €/m 3 for EF depending on energy and electrode consumption at optimum conditions. The results indicate that the RSM is suitable for the design and optimization of both of the processes. However, EF process was a more effective technology for paper mill industry wastewater treatment as compared with EC.

Hydrophilic inks have been widely used due to higher printing speed, competitive cost and being healthy non-organic solvents. However, they cause problems in both product quality and process runnability due to their hydrophilic surface wettability, strong negative surface charge and sub-micron size. Electric treatment was shown to be able to increase the ink sizes from 60 nm to 700 nm through electrocoagulation and electrophoresis. In addition, electric treatment assisted flotation could reduce effective residual ink concentration (ERIC) by 90 ppm, compared with only 20 ppm by traditional flotation. Furthermore, the effect of electric treatment alone on ink separation was investigated by two anode materials, graphite and stainless steel. Both of them could remove hydrophilic inks with less than 1% yield loss via electroflotation and electrophoresis. But graphite is a better material as the anode because graphite reduced ERIC by an additional 100 ppm. The yield loss of flotation following electric treatment was also lower by 17% if graphite was the anode material. The difference between the two electrode materials resulted from electrocoagulation and ink redeposition during electric treatment. An electric pretreatment-flotation-hyperwashing process was conducted to understand the deinking performance in conditions similar to a paper mill, and the ERIC was reduced from 950 ppm to less than 400 ppm.

The activated sludge process is an old technology, but still the most commonly used one for treatment of wastewater. Despite the wide spread usage the technology still suffers from instability (Tandoi et al. 2006) and high operating cost. Activated sludge processes often carry a large solids inventory. Managing the total inventory without interference is the key component of the optimization process described in this paper. Use of nutrients is common in pulp and paper effluent treatment. Feeding enough nutrients to support the biomass growth is a delicate balance. Overfeeding or underfeeding of nutrients can result in higher costs. Detrimental substances and toxic components in effluents entering a biological treatment system can cause severe, long lasting disturbances (Hynninen & Ingman 1998; Bergeron & Pelletier 2004). A LumiKem test kit is used to measure biological activity with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in a pulp and paper mill. ATP data are integrated with other standardized mill parameters. Measurements of active volatile suspended solids based on ATP can be used to quantify the living biomass in the activated sludge process and to ensure that sufficient biomass is present in order to degrade the wastewater constituents entering the process. Information about active biomass will assist in optimizing sludge inventories and feeding of nutrients allowing the living biomass to re-populate to create optimal efficiency. ATP measurements can also be used to alert operators if any components toxic to bacteria are present in wastewater. The bio stress index represents the stress level experienced by the microbiological population. This parameter is very useful in monitoring toxicity in and around bioreactors. Results from the wastewater process optimization and ATP measurements showed that treatment cost could be reduced by approximately 20–30% with fewer disturbances and sustained biological activity compared to the reference period. This was mainly achieved by the removal of detrimental substances and optimized nutrient dosage.

Pulp and paper mill effluents represent a challenge when treatment technologies are considered, not only to reduce organic matter, but also to reduce the toxicological effects. Although anaerobic treatment has shown promising results, as well as advantages when compared with an aerobic system, this process alone is not sufficient to reduce recalcitrant compounds. Thus, an advanced oxidation process was applied. This experiment was performed to determine the effect of ozone and ozone/UV treating a horizontal anaerobic immobilized biomass reactor effluent from a kraft cellulose pulp mill for 306 days with an organic volumetric load of 2.33 kgCOD/m3/day. The removal of organic compounds was measured by the following parameters: adsorbable organically bound halogens (AOX), total phenols, chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved organic carbon and absorbance values in the UV-visible spectral region. Moreover, ecotoxicity and genotoxicity tests were conducted before and after treatment with ozone and ozone/UV. At an applied ozone dosage of 0.76 mgO3/mgCOD and an applied UV dosage of 3.427 Wh/m3, the organochlorine compounds measured as AOX reached removal efficiencies of 40%. Although the combination of ozone/UV showed better results in colour (79%) and total phenols (32%) compared with only ozone, the chronic toxicity and the genotoxicity that had already been removed in the anaerobic process were slightly increased.

Industrial production of apparel consumes large quantity of freshwater and discharges effluents that intensify the problem of freshwater shortage and water pollution. The industrial water footprint (IWF) of a piece of apparel includes the water footprint (WF) of the fabric, apparel accessories (e.g. zipper, fastener, sewing thread) and industrial production processes. The objective of this paper is to carry out a pilot study on IWF accounting for three kinds of typical zipper (i.e. metal zipper, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) zipper and polyoxymethylene copolymer (Co-POM) zipper) that are commonly used for apparel production. The results reveal that product output exerts a remarkable influence on zipper's average IWF. Metal zipper has the largest IWF and followed by Co-POM zipper and PET zipper. Painting, dyeing and primary processing are the top three water-consuming processes and contribute about 90% of the zipper's IWF. Painting consumes the largest amount of freshwater among all processes and occupies more than 50% of the zipper's IWF. In addition, the grey water footprint (WFgrey) provides the greatest contribution, more than 80%, to the zipper's IWF. Based on these results, this paper also provides several strategies aimed at water economization and pollution reduction during industrial production of zipper.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of membrane technology to treat oxygen and peroxide-reinforced extraction stage (EPO) filtrate from a kraft pulp mill bleach plant. Three different types of tubular membranes were tested in a pilot plant: (i) tight ultrafiltration (UF); (ii) open UF followed by nanofiltration (UF + NF); and (iii) nanofiltration (NF). According to the separation performance, considering the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and colour removal, permeate flux, operational simplicity and cost, the results indicated that the best option for treatment of (EPO) filtrates was the tight UF membrane. This membrane obtained a COD removal of 79% with a colour reduction of 86%. The effect of (EPO) filtrate UF treatment on the mill effluent treatment plant was evaluated. Compared with the actual mill effluent, the results indicated that if the UF permeate was recycled in the bleaching area, the COD reduction efficiency increased by 7%, the final effluent colour decreased by 8%, the biological sludge production decreased by 18%, and the energy consumption decreased by 40%. In the tertiary treatment plant, the coagulant dosage decreased by 40%, and the tertiary sludge production decreased by 46%.

Industrial discharge has tremendously increased inorganic pollutants in water bodies all over the world. Paper and pulp effluent is included in one of the most pollution generating discharges containing complex chemical compounds such as lignin. For clean and healthy water resources, the recovery of lignin from wastewater from the paper and pulp industry is of high importance. Available chemical and biological technologies for removal of lignin have certain drawbacks. Coagulation and flocculation is not only the economic but also the effective method for removal of lignin. The present review highlights available coagulants employed for removal of lignin from paper and pulp wastewater. Each coagulant is pH dependent and shows varied results with change in effluent characteristics. The hydrolysis products of aluminium-based coagulants, iron-based coagulants and copper sulphate have positive charges. These positive charges promote formation of flocs through charged neutralisation or sweep flocculation. In the case of titanium-based coagulants, hydrolysis product is negatively charged and mode is heterocoagulation. Ninety percent recovery of lignin is achieved by using a mixture of oxotitanium sulphate and aluminium sulphate and 80% with aluminium sulphate. Virtually complete recovery of lignin is observed with oxotitanium sulphate.

Ozone (O3) has been used successfully in advanced wastewater treatment in paper mills, other sectors and municipalities. To solve the water problems of regions lacking fresh water, wastewater treated by advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) can substitute fresh water in highly water-consuming industries. Results of this study have shown that paper strength properties are not impaired and whiteness is slightly impaired only when reusing paper mill wastewater. Furthermore, organic trace compounds are becoming an issue in the German paper industry. The results of this study have shown that AOPs are capable of improving wastewater quality by reducing organic load, colour and organic trace compounds.

Removal batch assays of phosphates from a synthetic wastewater (SWW) and a pulp and paper mill wastewater (PPWW) with two forestry biomass ashes were performed. The supernatants were not only chemically characterized but also the ecotoxicity was determined using two organisms: Vibrio fischeri and Artemia franciscana. The addition of fly ash and bottom ash to the SWW in solid/liquid (S/L) ratios of 3.35 and 9.05 g L−1, respectively, achieved removal percentages of phosphates >97% for both ashes. The addition of fly ash and bottom ash to the PPWW in S/L ratios of 34.45 and 46.59 g L−1, respectively, yield removal percentages of phosphates >90% for both ashes. According to the results of the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, the removal of phosphates from the SWW was mainly explained by surface removal mechanisms, while the removal from the PPWW was partially explained by multi-layer mechanisms. The supernatants resulting from the treatment of SWW and PPWW with both biomass ashes did not present acute ecotoxicity.

Cationic paper was prepared by reaction of paper with 2,3-epoxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride in aqueous suspension, and tested as low-cost adsorbent for wastewater treatment. The experimental results revealed that anionic dyes (Acid Orange 7, Acid Red 18, and Acid Blue 92) were adsorbed on the cationic paper nicely. The maximum amount of dye Acid Orange 7 adsorbed on cationic paper was 337.2 mg/g in experimental conditions. The effects of initial dye concentration, temperature, and initial pH of dye solution on adsorption capacity of cationic paper were studied. The pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models were applied to describe the kinetic data. The Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption models were used to describe adsorption equilibrium. The thermodynamic data indicated that the adsorption process of dye on cationic paper occurred spontaneously.

Eucalyptus bleached kraft pulp production, an important sector of the Brazilian national economy, is responsible for generating large volume, high pollutant load effluents, containing a considerable fraction of recalcitrant organic matter. The objectives of this study were to quantify the biological activity of the effluent from a eucalyptus bleached kraft pulp mill, characterize the nature of compounds responsible for biological activity and assess the effect of ozone treatment on its removal. Primary and secondary effluents were collected bimonthly over the course of one year at a Brazilian bleached eucalypt kraft pulp mill and their pollutant loads (biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC), adsorbable organic halogen (AOX), lignin, extractives) and biological activity (acute and chronic toxicity and estrogenic activity) quantified. The effluent studied did not present acute toxicity to Daphnia, but presented the chronic toxicity effects of algal growth inhibition and reduced survival and reproduction in Ceriodaphnia, as well as estrogenic activity. Chronic toxicity and estrogenic activity were reduced but not eliminated during activated sludge biological treatment. The toxicity identification evaluation revealed that lipophilic organic compounds (such as residual lignin, extractives and their byproducts) were responsible for the toxicity and estrogenic activity. Ozone treatment (50 mg/L O3) of the secondary effluent eliminated the chronic toxicity and significantly reduced estrogen activity.

Simultaneous precipitation (SP) using iron sulfates in the secondary treatment of elemental chlorine-free (ECF) kraft pulp mill wastewater was studied. In short-term pilot plant studies phosphorus reduction was improved from 58% up to 81% by adding 10 mgFe/L ferrous sulfate in the activated sludge (AS) process. The phosphorus reduction in full-scale experiment was about 80% when less than 10 mgFe/L was fed in with the influent of the AS plant. The reduction of phosphorus decreased with the dose of iron during the three month experiment. No notable change in either chemical oxygen demand (COD) or adsorbable organic halogen (AOX) reduction nor in the properties of sludge settling were observed during this SP experiment. Furthermore, no problems in sludge treatment due to increased iron concentrations in the waste sludge were reported. SP offers a simple way to decrease phosphorus discharges from AS plants instead of reliance on more expensive tertiary treatments.

The goal of this study was to optimize the coagulation–flocculation process in wastewater generated from the paper and pulp industry using a grey relational analysis (GRA)-based Taguchi method. Process parameters included types and doses of natural coagulants and coagulant aid, and pH. To track the efficiency of the treatment process, the following responses were chosen for optimization: chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS) and turbidity of wastewater, alone or in combination or all together. Analysis of variance showed that the type and dose of the coagulant aid were the most significant parameters, followed by pH and the dose of the coagulant; the type of coagulant used was found to be insignificant in the coagulation–flocculation process. Optimization of process parameters to achieve lower turbidity and greater removal of COD and TDS was verified in a separate confirmatory experiment, which showed improvements in COD and TDS removal and a decrease in turbidity of 8.2, 6.35 and 26.17%, respectively, with the application of the Taguchi method and GRA.

The present paper presents the main results of the biodegradation study of paper industry wastewater through physico-chemical treatment. Indeed, around 60% of chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal can be achieved by electroflocculation treatment. Furthermore, a removal efficiency of the COD of almost 91% has been obtained by biological treatment, with activated amount of sludge for 24 h of culture. Concerning the physico-chemical pre-treatment of the untreated, filtered and electroflocculated rejection effluents, it has been investigated through the degradation curve of COD studies.

This paper presents the design and operational performance data of an anaerobic/aerobic hybrid side-stream Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) process for treating paper mill effluent operated over a 6 month period. The paper mill effluent stream was characterized by a chemical oxygen demand (COD) range of between 1,600 and 4,400 mg/L and an average BOD of 2,400 mg/L. Despite large fluctuations in COD feed concentration, stable process performance was achieved. The anaerobic Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) pre-treatment step effectively lowered the organic loading by 65 to 85%, thus lowering the MBR COD feed concentration to consistently below 750 mg/L. The overall MBR COD removal was consistent at an average of 96%, regardless of the effluent COD or changes in the hydraulic retention time (HRT) and organic loading rate (OLR). Combining a high-rate anaerobic pre-treatment EGSB with a Modified Ludzack–Ettinger (MLE) MBR process configuration produced a high quality permeate. Preliminary NF and RO results indicated an overall COD removal of around 97 and 98%, respectively.

The goal of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of PHA biosynthesis from kraft mill effluent using the batch system evaluating the biomass origin and C:N relationship influence. To evaluate feasibility, batch assays were carried out. Also, two levels of the BOD 5 :N:P relationship (100:5:1 and 100:1:0.2) and three different sludge origins were considered. Inocula were obtained from activated sludge treatment plants for a) sewage (SAS), b) paper mill (PAS) and c) kraft (KAS). The results show that the maximum Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD 5 ) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) removal was 80.5% and 59.7% respectively using KAS as inoculum. In these assays, kinetics constants were 17.9±3.2 mg L −1 and 46.5±1.2 d −1 for ( K COD ) and (r max ), respectively under a BOD 5 :N:P relationship of 100:5:1. The maximum PHA accumulation was obtained under a BOD 5 :N:P relationship of 100:1:0.2 on the third day of batch assays using PAS sludge with 25.72% of the cells accumulating PHA and on the fifth day in batch using SAS and KAS sludge with 25.85% and 30.40% of cells accumulating PHA, respectively. Yields obtained for the 100:1:0.2 relationships ranged from 0.10–0.14 mg PHA mg −1 COD.

Pulp and paper mills are under increasing pressure to minimize the discharge of phosphate to receiving waters. We investigated the operation of two laboratory sequencing batch reactors (SBR) under low phosphate conditions over a period of eight months. Performance characteristics in terms of COD and TSS removal were similar to the full-scale mill activated sludge operation, but the floc density and structure was improved. Sludge yield as a result of phosphate limitation was routinely lower than 0.15 kg/kg of COD. Aerobic granule formation was established in one of the SBRs by reducing the settling time from 30 min to 2 min and by increasing stirring shear force. Once established, the brown granules which were 1–2 mm in diameter were stable over five months of operation. Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) analysis of the granules indicated a higher galactose content and lower mannose content than in conventional flocs. The granules generated more quorum sensing compound (acyl homoserine lactone) than conventional flocs, suggesting that quorum sensing could play a role in granule formation. When compared to the conventional SBR, the aerobic granule SBR performed at a higher organic loading, at faster settling velocity, and without filamentous bulking.

The use of treated pulp mill effluent on eucalyptus plantation appears to be an attractive option for plant nutrition and water supply. It also constitutes a supplementary treatment process and a final disposal option for the mill effluent. This study aimed at the investigation and evaluation of the effects of bleached kraft pulp mill treated effluent on three typical Brazilian soils used for eucalyptus plantation. The effluent was characterized and five different application rates, defined according to the load of sodium, were tested in controlled environment experiments (greenhouse). After effluent application over a six month period an increase in the salinity of the studied soils was observed, although no soil dispersion was detected. The low content of some nutrients in the treated effluent indicated the need for fertilizer complementation. In general, the best biomass productivity and plant growth results were obtained in fine textured soil at a loading rate of 6.49 t Na ha−1. The good response of the soil-plant system under different effluent application rates showed the feasibility for the eucalyptus irrigation if adequate management practices and monitoring are carried out.

Aerobic biological treatment with activated sludge is the predominant process all over the world for treatment of pulp and paper industry wastewater. 50–70% of the biodegradable organic material is oxidized to CO2 and the rest is converted to bacterial biomass, typically termed as excess sludge or waste activated sludge (WAS). Handling and disposal of WAS in general and in particular from the pulp and paper industry face different processing difficulties, regulatory stringency due to organochlorine contamination and reluctance of people for reuse. With an objective of reducing the net disposable biomass, ozonation of WAS from a pulp and paper mill and from a laboratory scale batch activated sludge process operated with the wastewater and bacterial seed of the same pulp and paper mill have been carried out. With the mill sludge having predominant filamentous organisms 18% MLSS was reduced at an ozone dosage of 55 mg O3/g dry MLSS solid (DS) resulting in 2.5 times COD increase. With the laboratory sludge which is well structured and flocculating, only 6% MLSS was reduced at an ozone dosage of 55 mg O3/g DS. Ozonation mineralizes 26% and 20% AOX compounds embedded in the secondary sludge in the mill and laboratory sludge respectively at an ozone dosage of 55 mg O3/g DS. During ozonation, absorbed/adsorbed lignin on biomass was released which resulted in increased colour concentration. Ozonation can be a potential oxidative pretreatment process for reducing the WAS and paving the way for cost effective overall treatment of WAS.

A relatively simple set of calculations was presented in 1994 to evaluate the effectiveness of each ASB cell as reactor, clarifier, and digester. The steady-state model, which incorporated estimates of solids settling and benthal feedback of BOD5 and nutrients, has been a reasonable diagnostic tool for municipal and industrial applications. Results have aided in understanding normal system function, the nature of chronic inefficiencies of individual systems, and appropriate modifications to meet changes in discharge requirements. For applications in the pulp and paper industry, several changes have been incorporated recently. Nitrogen limitation is not needed in modeling pulp and paper ASB reactions. Slowly biodegradable material is modeled as a contributor to soluble BOD5, and this contribution becomes a significant factor in the latter segments of an ASB. Phosphorus availability is modeled as a stoichiometric control of soluble BOD5 uptake. Anoxic microorganisms are assumed to be responsible for a portion of the soluble BOD5 consumption in the first ASB aeration zone. Finally, the long-term nutrient capture in ASBs is modeled as 3% for nitrogen and 28% for phosphorus.

At present, there are many methods for Cr(VI) concentration determination in diluted samples, however, these methods have their own inherent drawbacks, such as long response time, complicated pretreatment, expensive equipment etc. In this paper, a paper-based test strip method specific for determination of diluted Cr(VI) samples was developed. In this method, Aliquat 336, as an anion exchanger was loaded into filter paper to form a test strip. This test strip was used to pre-concentrate Cr(VI) when contacting with the diluted Cr(VI)-containing solution. The Cr(VI)-containing test strip was then immersed into a diphenylcarbazide (DPC) solution (a color forming solution), and the color intensity was correlated to the Cr(VI) concentration. The detection range of the present method was found to be 0.02–1.50 mg/L. The results also showed that the method gave a high selectivity for Cr(VI) in the diluted samples to be tested. The method was applied to synthesized samples and the results, which were compared to those from a reference method, showed that the developed method is an effective, reliable way for Cr(VI) determination in diluted samples.

The connections between forest products operations and water resources in the United States is considered and, where possible, quantified. Manufacture of wood, pulp, and paper products and the influences of forest management and forest products manufacture on water quality are discussed. Most fresh water in the US originates in forested areas. Responsible harvesting strategies, best management practices, and forest re-growth combine to minimize or eliminate changes in water availability and degradation of water quality due to harvesting. Relative to alternative land uses and large-scale disturbance events, forested areas produce the highest quality of fresh water. Water inputs for the manufacture of forest products total about 5.8 billion m3 per year, an amount equal about 0.4% of the surface and groundwater yield from timberland. Approximately 88% of water used in manufacturing is treated and returned directly to surface waters, about 11% is converted to water vapor and released during the manufacturing process, and 1% is imparted to products or solid residuals. Extensive study and continued monitoring of treated effluents suggest few or no concerns regarding the compatibility of current effluents with healthy aquatic systems.

The purpose of this study was to assess the anaerobic degradation of black liquor with and without additional carbon sources. Batch experiments were conducted using black liquor, from an integrated pulp and paper mill adding ethanol, methanol and nutrients. The PCR/DGGE technique was used to characterize the structure of the microbial community. The addition of extra sources of carbon did not significantly influence the degradation of black liquor under the conditions evaluated and the microbial community was similar in all experiments. It was observed an increase in some members of the archaeal in reactors that had the best efficiencies for removal of black liquor (around 7.5%). Either ethanol or methanol can be used as co-substrates because the produce the same quantitative and qualitative effect.

To provide the first step towards a microbial ecology-based understanding of irreversible membrane biofouling, four laboratory-scale membrane bioreactors (MBRs) were operated to investigate the identity of bacterial populations highly correlated with irreversible membrane biofouling. The conventional MBR was divided into two separate experimental units. Unit one consisted of four suspended-growth, activated sludge, sequencing batch bioreactors treating a synthetic paper mill wastewater. Unit two consisted of a microfiltration membrane cell. Amplified ribosomal deoxyribonucleic acid restriction analysis (ARDRA) was used to compare the predominant bacterial populations in samples of mixed liquor and irreversibly bound to the membrane surface. The results of ARDRA showed a significant difference between the planktonic and sessile bacterial communities suggesting that irreversible biofouling of microfiltration membranes may be more highly correlated to specific bacterial populations rather than the total, bulk concentration of biomass. A custom-built mini-flow cell and light microscopy were used to visualise the early formation of biofilms by two pure cultures (Escherichia coli and Acinetobacter calcoaceticus) on membrane surfaces. The results confirmed that A. calcoaceticus was able to enhance the initiation of biofilm formation on microfiltration membranes.

One method to assess environmental effects from industrial emissions to coastal and inland waters, e.g. from pulp and paper industries, is to quantify these emissions with mass balance models. In this study six different mass balance models for phosphorus with varying degrees of complexity have been tested in 11 Swedish coastal areas. The majority of these areas are recipients of pulp and paper industries. The accuracy of model predictions of phosphorus and chlorophyll is evaluated and compared between models. The results imply that for the included water bodies, models containing state variables for phosphorus in surface water and deep water are superior to models treating the water column as a completely mixed entity. The results do not justify the separation of phosphorus into dissolved and particulate fractions, but for chlorophyll predictions the results were significantly improved when phytoplankton was included as a state variable. Unless detailed descriptions or predictions of chlorophyll dynamics are required, modelling eutrophication in coastal areas may be considered as a matter of total phosphorus in two water compartments plus sediments.

In activated sludge (AS) biotreatment, septic compounds such as volatile organic acids and reduced sulphur compounds have been frequently cited as a major cause of Thiothrix and Type 021N filamentous bulking. These filaments are common in Canadian pulp and paper biotreatment systems, where they cause settling problems in secondary clarifiers. We conducted a 14-week study of a TMP/newsprint mill effluent to characterize the septic compounds entering the biotreatment, and to determine correlations with AS biomass characteristics and biotreatment operating parameters. A significant correlation was found between the sludge volume index, the abundance of Type 021N, and the propionic acid (PA) concentration in the primary clarified effluent. PA also induced a significant change in the flocculating bacteria size distribution determined by digital imaging. Consequently, the correlation observed between PA and Type 021N bulking is an indirect effect of inhibition of floc-forming microorganisms, giving a competitive advantage to filaments.

In the pulp and paper industry, the water use minimization is a constant target. One way to reduce water use is to recycle the effluent in a closed-cycle concept. In paper mills, the main source of liquid effluent is the so-called whitewater, which is the excess water, originated from pulp stock dewatering and other fibre contaminated water. This research studied the reuse of paper mill whitewater after membrane ultrafiltration (UF) in the paper machine and in the pulp bleach plant of an integrated mill. Contaminant removal and flux behaviour of the UF system were evaluated. The treatment by ultrafiltration was technically feasible and the treated whitewater had good potential to be reused in some processes in the paper machine. The reuse of ultrafiltered whitewater in the bleaching plant was not recommended because of the high level of soluble calcium present in this stream. Therefore, a combined treatment of the whitewater using the principle of precipitation and ultrafiltration was proposed showing good results and enabling the use of the treated whitewater in the bleach plant.

A study was undertaken to remove colour from a kraft mill's treated effluent in Kenya and determine the suitability of phosphate rock to replace wood ash during the electrochemical process. The electrochemical method alone, electrochemical combined with alum (ELCAL), wood ash leachate (ELCAS) and phosphate rock (ELPHOS) solutions at a rate of 165 to 1,000 g/m3 were tested. Effluent characteristics were determined after complete removal of colour. Same reduction rates of TS (85%) and TSS (89%) were recorded by ELCAS and ELPHOS. However, ELPHOS removed more COD (86 to 91%) and more BOD (85 to 92%) than ELCAS. Furthermore, the pH of ELPHOS treated solution was 9.3, within the Kenya Local Government's allowable limit. Power reduction with ELCAS and ELPHOS varied between 53 to 73% and 49 to 69% respectively but the difference was not statistically significant. Overnight aeration further improved the quality of ELCAS and ELPHOS treated effluent, reducing BOD and COD values to 0 mg/l. ELPHOS cost ($0.29/m3) was nevertheless three times higher than that of ELCAS ($0.10/m3), mainly because of free wood ash. ELPHOS did not also increase effluent phosphorus. It was therefore recommended that various ways be explored in making ELPHOS more economical to replace ELCAS.

The combined biological and chemical treatments of the cellulose effluents have been studied aiming to promote a more significant degradation of their recalcitrant compounds and to reduce their toxicity, as compared with the isolated treatments. In this work the effluent from acid stages of the ECF bleaching of Eucalyptus urograndis pulp was treated by using separately activated sludge and UV radiation and its combination. The treatment efficiency was evaluated by colour, total phenol, COD, BOD, UV spectroscopy, molar weight distribution and toxicity. The untreated effluent presented 587 ± 18 CU, 19.3 ± 0.6 mg.L −1 of total phenol, 2,246 ± 137 mgO 2 .L −1 of COD and 904 ± 48 mgO 2 .L −1 of BOD. It did not show acute toxicity to Escherichia coli , but presented chronic toxicity to Selenastrum capricornutum (EC 50 = 25%). The sludge treatment resulted in a colour increasing of 42% and decreasing of total phenol, COD and BOD of 33%, 64% and 92%, respectively. The UV radiation treatment for 120 min resulted in a decrease of colour, total phenol, BOD and COD of 70%, 43%, 62% and 43%, respectively. The combined treatment promoted an expressive decrease for colour and total phenol. The UV absorption indicated a degradation of the aromatic compounds. The biological treatment did not remove chronic toxicity and after UV radiation treatment, a 10 times improving toxicity was noticed.

The objective of this paper is to identify deflocculation under short-term disturbances of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a continuous system, and to explore the strategies for minimizing the carry-over of biosolids. Sludge deflocculation was examined in four parallel sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) fed with primary treated effluents from a bleached kraft pulp and paper mill. Results show that the DO transients caused a reduction of soluble COD (SCOD) removal efficiency by 50–70%, increases in suspended solid (SS) concentration and turbidity by more than 100%. Under the DO disturbances, the ratio of bulk Ca2 + /K+ decreased by 10% in the treated effluents. All these changes were reversible within 24 hrs after the DO concentrations were restored up to 4 mg/L, indicating a physicochemical response of microorganisms to the DO transients. The sludge deflocculation is correlated with the decreasing ratio of Ca2 + to K+ in the extracellular environment. Addition of calcium chloride, tetraethylammonium chloride or glibenclamide promotes the formation of bioflocs bigger than 12.5 μm, but the deflocculation of biosolids under the DO transients wasn't completely prevented.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the semi-continuous post-treatment of anaerobically-pre-treated weak black liquor (anaerobic effluent, AnE) by aerobic post-treatment using hybrid pellets of Trametes versicolor. The latter consisted of fungus immobilized onto holm oak sawdust (mixed or double pellets) or a mixture of holm oak sawdust and powdered activated carbon (triple pellets). First, a semi-continuous experiment was run to compare the effectiveness of triple and mixed pellets in agitated flasks for 15 cycles of 7 days each. A second extended batch test was implemented with 500 mL AnE and triple pellets to give 400 mg fungal biomass; some units were spiked with protease inhibitor. In the first experiment, triple pellets displayed consistently higher removal efficiencies of pollutant parameters than double pellets (10 to 15% higher), although overall averages were moderate and no statistical significance to the difference could be set because of the noise of fluctuations. Periodic fluctuations of removal were characterized by three periods of approximately six cycles each with maximum removals occurring at cycles 3–4, 7–9, 13, and 14. Evaluating pooled removals of the latter cycles showed that triple pellets were significantly more effective than double pellets, with removal efficiencies as high as 47% of COD, colour, and absorbance at 254 nm (A254). In general, protease activity seemed to increase in the third period (last six cycles), whereas activities of MnP, LiP and Lac significantly decreased. In the second experiment, pollutant removals and enzymatic activities of triple pellets with protease inhibitor were significantly higher than those of units without added protease inhibitor. These results indicate that protease could be the main cause of periodic falls of pollutant removal efficiencies found in the first experiment.

The study was based on a full scale activated sludge plant (AS) compared to a parallel operated pilot membrane bioreactor (MBR) with flat sheets membranes. Both systems received their influent from an anaerobic bioreactor treating paper mill wastewater. MBR produced an effluent of much better quality than AS in terms of suspended solids, containing 1 mg/L or less in 80% of the monitoring time, while the AS effluent contained 12 mg/L. This could save the necessity of further treatment by filtration in the case of MBR. Other effluent quality parameters, such as organic matter (COD and BOD), phosphorus and ammonia nitrogen, did not indicate substantial differences between AS and MBR. Calcium carbonate scaling and formation of a bacterial layer on the membrane caused severe flux reduction. The membrane blockage because of scaling and biofouling proved to be very serious, therefore, it required proper and more complicated maintenance than the AS system. This study leads to the conclusion that in the case of paper mill wastewater, after anaerobic biotreatment, if there is no need for excellent effluent quality in terms of suspended solids, the replacement of the AS by the MBR would not be strongly justified, mainly because of maintenance cost.

The fate of nutrients in the modern effluent treatment plant depends on several factors, for example type of treatment plant, availability of nutrients in the specific effluent, dosing of nutrients and sludge age/production. New technologies with the aim to increase the efficiency and stability of the conventional activated sludge process have strongly affected the possibilities to control discharge of nutrients in pulp and paper effluents. A paradox is that a reduction of organic material may often lead to an increase of nutrient discharges. It is of the utmost importance that the operators have good knowledge of the factors affecting nutrient uptake and release in order to minimise nutrient discharge and obtain optimal plant performance. Dosing of nitrogen and phosphorus is one key factor in the sensitive balance in most pulp and paper effluent treatment plants. Correct dosing is crucial as high or low doses might lead not only to increased discharge of nutrients but also to severe operational problems with poor sludge quality, which in turn affects the plant performance for longer periods.

Pulp and paper companies all over the world certify their environmental management systems assuming public commitments for the continuous improvement of their relationship with the environment. Once certified, they consider themselves having done their part. But is this enough? This work has been carried out with the clear intention of provoking the professionals who can give the much needed answers for the construction of environmental sustainability in the pulp and paper sector.

The main objective of this work is to study the technical viability of using the effluent generated in paper machines (white water) in the wash presses of the bleaching stage, reducing fresh water consumption. As a case study, the industrial process of Ripasa S.A. Celulose e Papel was evaluated. White water rate is about 700 m3/h and it is not possible to reuse all this volume in the bleaching stage without causing operational problems (fouling in tubes and clogging in the screens). A mass balance of the bleaching unit was developed in an electronic spreadsheet in order to evaluate the possibility of reducing fresh water consumption, using only a fraction of the available white water in the wash presses. To achieve this objective some physical-chemistry properties of the white water stream and of other streams of the process were determined. The maximum concentration of some non-process elements (Si, Ca, Mn and Fe), which could accumulate in the process, were determined in order to establish some parameters to allow process integration of the streams involved, considering operational constraints. The results obtained have shown that it is possible to reduce approximately by 13% the consumption of fresh water and this methodology has been satisfactory.

This study reports on a multivariate analysis of the moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) wastewater treatment system at a Canadian pulp mill. The modelling approach involved a data overview by principal component analysis (PCA) followed by partial least squares (PLS) modelling with the objective of explaining and predicting changes in the BOD output of the reactor. Over two years of data with 87 process measurements were used to build the models. Variables were collected from the MBBR control scheme as well as upstream in the bleach plant and in digestion. To account for process dynamics, a variable lagging approach was used for variables with significant temporal correlations. It was found that wood type pulped at the mill was a significant variable governing reactor performance. Other important variables included flow parameters, faults in the temperature or pH control of the reactor, and some potential indirect indicators of biomass activity (residual nitrogen and pH out). The most predictive model was found to have an RMSEP value of 606 kgBOD/d, representing a 14.5% average error. This was a good fit, given the measurement error of the BOD test. Overall, the statistical approach was effective in describing and predicting MBBR treatment performance.

Since the early 1980s, anaerobic treatment of industrial effluents has found widespread application in the pulp and paper industry. Over 200 installations are treating a large variety of different pulp and paper mill effluents. Amongst various anaerobic systems the UASB and IC are the most applied anaerobic reactor systems. Anaerobic treatment is well feasible for effluents originated from recycle paper mills, mechanical pulping (peroxide bleached), semi-chemical pulping and sulphite and kraft evaporator condensates. The advantages of anaerobic pre-treatment are (1) net production of renewable energy (biogas), (2) minimized bio-solids production, (3) minimal footprint and (4) reduced emission of greenhouse gases. Via in-line application of anaerobic treatment in closed circuits (paper kidney technology) further savings on cost of fresh water intake and effluent discharge levies are generated.

In the process of making high quality pulp from wood chips, much water will continuously be needed. The fate of the used water with the organic and inorganic impurities remains optional. Mills with zero liquid effluent have been mentioned as the target in environmental loading minimization of pulp and paper mills with hardly any debate. To avoid inappropriate solutions when approaching this target, thorough knowledge of loading element behavior in liquid streams of production processes should be available before decisions are made for development alternatives. Based on empirical measurements of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in liquid streams of fiberline and utilizing them together with routine mill data in process simulation, this study aims at mapping DOM and its fate in elemental chlorine free (ECF) softwood kraft pulp production. The results of this study act as a demonstration for determining the essential fates and their quantities in the ECF fiberline.

Up to 30% of the released colour arising from bleached kraft pulp and paper production comes from the alkaline extraction stage. This waste stream can therefore be readily targeted to remove colour at source in mills where improved colour management is required. The efficacy of five advanced oxidative treatment and physico-chemical technologies in removing colour from a typical Eop stage effluent was compared. The most effective oxidative treatment was peroxymonosulphate (79% colour removal in 15 minutes). Ozone and TAML® treatments removed 74% and 58% of colour respectively within 30 minutes. In comparison, hydrogen peroxide alone was only able to remove 35% of the colour over 4 hours. Coagulation with polyaluminium chloride achieved 89% colour removal within 5 minutes. However, this treatment produced an undesirable sludge, and may cause toxicity in the treated wastewater. Overall, colour removal ability of the five technologies ranked from highest to lowest was polyaluminium chloride > peroxymonosulfate > ozone > TAML® > hydrogen peroxide. Other factors, such as operating costs, feedstock modification and capital infrastructure, also need to be taken into account when selecting the most suitable colour management option.

As opposed to effluents from chemical pulp production, very little is known about the endocrine potential of papermaking effluents. To evaluate the endocrine potential of biologically treated effluents from the main grades produced in Germany (fine, graphic and packaging papers), 16 samples were studied by means of the Recombinant Yeast Estrogen Assay (R-YEA). 10 samples were tested positive; seven of them were effluents from recovered paper processing mills. Possible sources of endocrine disruptors in addition to wood components include papermaking chemicals, paper converting chemicals, if recovered paper is used, and/or detrimental substances introduced by impurities in these chemicals. Six of the above samples were subjected to individual substance analyses to detect endocrinologically active or potentially endocrinologically active substances. Even though phthalate compounds were detected in concentrations between 0.46 and 2.36 μg/L, only two of the six samples were tested positive in the R-YEA, because the test fails to adequately detect this compound's class. Despite this drawback, the R-YEA will be used for further studies because of the great variety of potential endocrine substances present in paper mill effluents. In particular, mechanical and recycled fibre pulps as well as the constituents of chemical additives must be investigated in more detail.