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This paper examines empathetic behavior in the United States, a strongly individualistic country, as contrasted with Hungary and Ethiopia, which are moderately individualistic and strongly collectivistic respectively. It suggests that empathy may have a wider than originally perceived application in diverse settings to combat factors of ethnic bias and discrimination that adversely impact health. Models that distinctly focus on the development of healthcare provider empathic care are needed to enable the needs of resource scarce regions of the world to be met, including pockets of the U.S. More investigation is warranted on how empathic behavior can positively impact health outcomes and disparities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positive psychological capital (PsyCap) is a key measure of workplace positivity, yet its organizational impact may be somewhat limited by current measurement practices. Given its state-like and malleable nature, organizations need accurate yet brief measures to allow for repeated measurement of PsyCap. A very short PsyCap instrument could be used in various ways by organizations to measure and track employee positivity, thus enabling management to make decisions with more insight. Similarly, for researchers, a much shorter scale could dramatically improve research efficiency and response rate, opening up new perspectives in PsyCap research. In this paper, initial evidence is provided for the validity of a short PsyCap measure across multiple samples of working adult populations (N = 1331 in total) from four different countries (United States, China, Germany, and Hungary). Consistent with prior research, we propose a five-item PsyCap measure, the PCQ-5, consisting of one item from the dimensions of self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism and one item for each facet of the hope dimension (agency and pathways). The proposed PCQ-5 shows internal consistency reliability and good fit for a single factor global PsyCap model across all samples. Moreover, like the PCQ-24, the PCQ-5 is associated with meaningful workplace outcomes such as job performance, job satisfaction, OCBs, voice, and helping behaviors, and it is negatively related to deviant behaviors like CWBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes how the Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán uses social categorization and populist rhetoric in an anti-LGBTQ campaign. Drawing on social identity theory and the scholarship on populist rhetoric and anti-LGBTQ politics, the article examines 46 interviews, press statements, public speeches, and op-eds by Orbán. Using critical discourse analysis (CDA) and Wodak's discourse-historical approach, it shows how the prime minister frames LGBTQ communities as an out-group that poses a threat to Hungarian values and way of living. Similar to the issue of immigration and existing anti-LGBTQ frames in other countries, Orbán presents LGBTQ groups within his well-established anti-Western narrative. In addition, he connects LGBTQ communities to other out-groups that have been portrayed as a threat for a long time. The study sheds new light on the linguistic strategies of Orbán and shows how populist rhetoric and social categorization complement each other in a political campaign. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most widely used measure for studying social, economic, and health inequality is the Gini index/ratio. Whereas other measures of inequality possess certain useful characteristics, such as the straightforward decomposability of the generalized entropy measures, the Gini index has remained the most popular, at least in part due to its ease of interpretation. However, the Gini index has a limitation in measuring inequality. It is less sensitive to how the population is stratified than how individual values differ. The twin purposes of this paper are to explain the limitation and to propose a model-based method—latent class/clustering analysis for understanding and measuring inequality. The latent cluster approach has the major advantage of being able to identify potential “classes” of individuals who share similar levels of income or one or more other attributes and to assess the fit of the model-based classes to the empirical data, based on different cluster distributional assumptions and the number of latent classes. This paper distinguishes class inequality from individual inequality, the type that is better captured by the Gini. Once the classes are estimated, the membership of estimated classes obtained from the best fitting model facilitates the decomposition of the Gini index into individual and class inequality. Class inequality is then measured by two relative stratification indices based on either the relative size of the Gini between-class components or the relative number of stratified individuals. Therefore, the Gini index is extended and assisted by model-based clustering to measure class inequality, thereby realizing its great potential for studying inequality. Income data from France and Hungary are used to illustrate the application of the method. INSETS: Figure 1. Gini indices and Lorenz curves for income data...;Figure 2. Empirical income distribution of France in 1990...;Figure 3. Income clustering in France, 1990.;Figure 4. Income clustering in Hungary, 1992. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the Hungarian venture capital industry, one of the most well-developed in the emerging economies of Central and Eastern Europe. Using a combination of secondary data, mail questionnaires, and face-to-face interviews, the paper identifies areas of both similarity and difference with experience in developed capitalist economies. The need for venture capitalists to obtain control is found to be much stronger in Hungary than in the US. The relative importance of DCF and price/earnings ratio methods of valuation are reversed when Hungary and western experience are compared. There was evidence that Hungarian domestic venture capitalists engage in less detailed monitoring than either venture capitalists elsewhere or foreign-based venture capitalists operating in Hungary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this descriptive study the aim is to analyze the Hungarian educational policy history and event-chain of the comprehensive and post-comprehensive project. As a structuring framework this paper used the historical landmarks and the different institutional arrangement models (governance types and power distribution models). Accordingly, three landmarks and policy cycles have been identified, which are connected to political and social turns in Hungary. The first is the period of massive centralization and egalitarianism from the mid-1940s to the mid-1980s. The second period has to be counted from the acceleration of educational transformations, the political turn and transition times from the mid-1980s till 2010, whilst the third cycle is formed by recent policy developments. This paper’s overarching aim is to give an overview on the political, social and economic contexts of educational policies, and the key actors of comprehensive common school and policy impact. The term ‘comprehensive school’ is addressed in terms of its structural–curricular, political and cultural meanings. Accordingly, an analytical framework was developed, which is a combination of political (interest-groups/actor-centrism), cultural (ideological/interpretive framework) and structural-functionalist (social demand, ecology of the schools) explanations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a large, matched employer-employee data set, the authors investigate the impact of company and industry collective bargaining agreements on wages in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland (CE3). They also examine the changing characteristics of the union wage premium in different cohorts of establishments. Their results challenge the common idea of weak unions in the CE3 by revealing a union wage premium whose characteristics depend on the level at which collective bargaining occurs. They find that industry agreements increase wages for low-skilled workers, while company agreements increase medium- and high-skilled wages. Their second finding is that the union wage premium is unevenly distributed between cohorts, with substantial cross-country variation. Wage premiums are concentrated in the transitional cohorts in the Czech Republic and Poland and, to a lesser extent, in the pre-transitional cohort in Hungary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes several ways in which the transformation of Hungarian social structure between 1938 and 1973 constrained changes in rates of Intergenerational social mobility. Three concepts of ways in which shifts in the distributions of social origins and destinations can result in changes. in the total rate of mobility-"discrepancy effects," "concentration effects," and "composition effects" -are discussed and shown to be represented in a multiplicative model commonly applied to mobility tables. By observing the changes in the expected percentage mobile when various constraints are added to this multiplicative model, the relative impact of each aspect of structural change becomes more apparent Most of the change in Hungary, particularly between 1953 and 1973, is attributable to changes in structural constraints. Most of the change in mobility across economic classes was associated with changing origin-destination discrepancy effects, as were large portions of the changes in mobility across socioeconomic status levels and broad social strata. Changing concentration effects were less important, and mostly affected mobility across SES levels. Detailed composition effects were most important in conjunction with monotonic increases in mobility across SES levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an interpretation and discussion of processes in which some bathers to managerial learning have emerged from interviews with managers working in International Joint Venture companies in Hungary. The authors have found that a major barrier to learning is the vulnerability of the social identities of Hungarian managers which are unrecognized and inappropriately handled by expatriate managers, who are seen as having colonialist attitudes, power and control. A further significant bather is the uncertainty involved in societal acculturation alongside radical organizational changes and unrecognized facets of group dynamics between expatriates and locals. Promoting means-and-ends learning without acknowledging that managerial learning is contextual, ideological and historical, was found to have resulted mostly in compliance. However, learning still occurred, though it is seen to be necessary to acknowledge outcomes and forms of learning which are not frequently addressed in relation to managerial learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the development of organizational studies in Hungary. Attempts in introducing organizational theories; Dominance of industrial engineering; Scientific research conducted by universities and research institutes; Development of of Ph.D. programs; Review of related organizational studies.

Relative development of Hungarian counties is described generally by the GDP per capita indicator, but this figure does not cover the knowledge gap on the liveability of the regions. The other frequently used method is the indicator systems, but it does not emphasize the structure of causes and consequences of the regional development, and so, it does not provide information on which factors are more likely to be the causes or, reversely, the consequences of the different regional development. To overcome the shortcomings of the above-mentioned methods, we created a structural equation model (SEM) at NUTS 3 level for years 1994–2016 based on the LISREL estimation procedure. The applied model can be classified into experimental statistics, but it uses data only from official statistics, namely the regional indicators published by the Hungarian Central Statistical Office. The model assumes that the economic development depends on observable economic indicators, and it determines the regional development as well. In addition, the regional development is also explained by non-economic, social, demographic and cultural and infrastructural indicators. The variable selection and the classification into causes and consequences was a three-step process, and the factors were classified by analysis of correlations, cross-correlations and Granger-causality. The results of estimation provided basis for a deeper analysis; how the regional development has changed in Hungary after the regime change, and how these variables were influenced by the country's integration into the global value chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research into the creation of markets highlights the importance of law-making, seen to express relations between stakeholders in emerging organizational fields. Less understood is the role of existing regulation, despite related work on path-dependency. We unpack the role of extant laws by analysing consecutive attempts to establish the mortgage market in post-socialist Hungary, mobilizing the anthropology of law and actor-network methods. Based on interviews and archival documents, we find, first, that existing laws exert agency in the market-building process not only through abstract legal 'traditions' but through technical features which may resist the market arrangements proposed by political-economic coalitions. Second, the resistance of law can vary based on whether its spokespersons (guardians of legal consistency) become 'market engineers' under specific organizational configurations. We theorize this agency with the concept of 'legal infrastructure', and show how it acts as a non-human organizer of markets, ensuring compatibility across the economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to explain the evolution of housing policy in Hungary in order to throw light on the character of redistribution under state socialism, and on the conditions under which employers intervene in the housing sphere. Changes in housing policy are explained by a model which emphasizes developments in the Hungarian economy, such as the rise of the second economy, changes in labour market competition, and the changing power of large firms, and their consequential effects on employer motivation and capacity to intervene in housing to recruit, motivate and retain their labour force. Whereas for Szelényi state socialist redistribution is inherently regressive, the model advanced here both draws attention to variations in the regressiveness/progressiveness of housing policy and offers an explanation of these changes in terms of the changing balance of forces acting on the state, and in particular the importance of large employers and the opportunities open for them to use housing to resolve their labour problems. The greater role of employers in the housing sphere in Hungary is linked to the `resource-constrained' nature of state socialist economies and to the interpenetration of economic and political spheres, and is hence argued to be a structural feature of state socialism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the dynamics of the transition to democracy in post-communist Hungary. We describe the "founding election" of 1990 by modeling voter turnout and party choice. Our results show that in the 1990 election there was a large social democratic constituency in Hungary, but that it was not effectively mobilized. We argue that both the conservatives and the liberals failed to express the interests of the electorate, and instead played the game of politics of symbols that featured starkly drawn ideological issues. Because of this abyss between parties and the electorate, many Hungarians expressed their opposition to the political system by boycotting the polls. The moral is that the victory of the socialists in the 1994 election is hardly surprising. By campaigning with an aggressively social-democratic platform, they captured the attention of a distinctive social constituency and thus may be setting the stage for relatively stable post-communist rule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How does job context influence employers’ views of mothers as workers? Drawing on 51 in-depth interviews with employers in the finance and business service sectors of Hungary, the authors find that finance employers rely on a variety of strategies aimed at excluding mothers from entry-level professional jobs, while business services employers invest significant resources aimed at recruiting and accommodating mothers. To explain this variation, the authors suggest that employers’ views of mothers are dependent on their perception of skill requirements and knowledge/skill dynamism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article contributes to ongoing debates in the transformatology literature, as well as the wider literature on the global neoliberal revolution, on the origins of neoliberalism in Soviet-style economies. Within these debates, the transition to a (free) market economy and liberal democracy in Hungary and elsewhere in the former Soviet bloc has commonly been perceived as an exogenous process, dating to the annus mirabilis of 1989. This article challenges this consensus. Through a case study of the Financial Research Institute (Pénzügykutatási Intézet), the official research institute of the Ministry of Finance, and a programme of radical economic reform, known as ‘Turnabout and Reform’ (Fordulat és Reform), published in 1987 by a group of experts at the institute, the article demonstrates that in the case of Hungary, neoliberalism was not simply an ‘imported project’, which arrived ‘from the West’ on the eve of the formal transition in 1989–1990. Rather, it is argued that it emerged organically in Hungarian society in the 1980s, as a response by domestic economic and political elites to the deepening crisis of the Kádár regime. Hence, the essential aim of the ‘neoliberal turn’ was to reconfigure the Hungarian economy in line with the exigencies of the capitalist world economy, while ensuring that the political transition went as smoothly as possible. As such, while obviously a repudiation of past policy, policymakers in Budapest pursued the similar objectives as central planners under ‘actually existing socialism’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article concerns the extent to which corrupt behavior is dependent on the organizational power structure and the resources available for illegal exchange. This qualitative study is based on 42 in-depth interviews with organizational actors in different organizations in Hungary. Four core themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews: (a) isolated corruption at the bottom, (b) the middle level’s own corruption, (c) “technicization” when middle-level professionals and expert groups are used to legalize the corruption of the dominant coalition, and (d) “turning-off controls” when organizational elites intentionally deactivate internal and external controls to avoid detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article redirects attention from the question of how business ties have an impact on politics to the question of how political ties have an impact on business. Specifically, do divisions within the field of politics become divisions in the field of business networks? To study co-evolution of political and economic fields, we conducted a historical network analysis of the relationship between firm-to-party ties and firm-to-firm ties in the Hungarian economy. We constructed a dataset of all senior managers and boards of directors of 1,696 corporations and the complete set of all political officeholders from 1987 to 2001. Findings from our field interviews and dyadic logistic regression models demonstrate that director interlocks depend, to a significant extent, on political affiliations. Although the political and economic fields have been institutionally separated, firms and parties have become organizationally entangled. Firms of either left or right political affiliation exhibit a preference for partnerships with firms in the same political camp and increasingly avoid ties with firms in the opposite camp. Our analysis reveals that political camps in the Hungarian economy occurred not as a direct legacy of state socialism but as the product of electoral party competition. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Important biological information is encoded in the topology of biological networks. Comparative analyses of biological networks are proving to be valuable, as they can lead to transfer of knowledge between species and give deeper insights into biological function, disease, and evolution. We introduce a new method that uses the Hungarian algorithm to produce optimal global alignment between two networks using any cost function. We design a cost function based solely on network topology and use it in our network alignment. Our method can be applied to any two networks, not just biological ones, since it is based only on network topology. We use our new method to align protein-protein interaction networks of two eukaryotic species and demonstrate that our alignment exposes large and topologically complex regions of network similarity. At the same time, our alignment is biologically valid, since many of the aligned protein pairs perform the same biological function. From the alignment, we predict function of yet unannotated proteins, many of which we validate in the literature. Also, we apply our method to find topological similarities between metabolic networks of different species and build phylogenetic trees based on our network alignment score. The phylogenetic trees obtained in this way bear a striking resemblance to the ones obtained by sequence alignments. Our method detects topologically similar regions in large networks that are statistically significant. It does this independent of protein sequence or any other information external to network topology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article centers on the potential attractiveness of central and east European countries' (CEEC) economies for industrial groups given their comparative economic and institutional characteristics. The authors focus on the possibility that cars and components production may be relocated from plants currently operating in Spain to plants in new member states of the CEEC and that new investments under corporate internationalization strategies may go to those countries seeking to take advantage of the benefits inherent in setting up in states such as Slovenia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. The authors look at the key variables for decision making and compare the theoretical probabilities with assessments drawn up by firms themselves concerning location factors on the basis of information gathered during field work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inter-firm relations vary significantly between capitalist economies as a result of institutional differences, especially in terms of trust and mechanisms ensuring adherence to contractual commitments. The transformation of the state socialist economies in Eastern Europe might be expected to destroy the pre- 1989 relationships between suppliers and customers and generate new types of connections. This study of 18 Hungarian firms and eight Slovenian firms found significant differences between the ways companies transformed and/or preserved the way they managed their supplier-customer relationships. These differences were mainly due to the differences between the legacies of state socialism, the mode of the macro-economic transformation and the general business environment in the two countries. This study also shows that unlike the Japanese firms studied by Sako, firms in Eastern Europe show contradictory behaviours if Sako's indicators of trust are applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the reformation of civil-military relationships in post-communist societies in Poland and Hungary. Communism in Eastern Europe collapsed in 1989, henceforth demanding the revision of civil-military relations in the region. Factors that have to be considered before the reformation of a new system of civil-military includes the dismantling of Communist control mechanisms, the creation of necessary legislation, rules, and regulations, and the reorganization of military structures. Several civil-military reforms have been completed in Poland. In Hungary, the civil-military reforms are in various stages of completion.

Engineers in the United States are expected to work 70- and 80-hour weeks routinely. Research an groups of software engineers working in India, China and Hungary indicates that such work hours are not inherent in the work. Rather, work-time standards and norms are found to vary across the three sites studied. Moreover, the way work is coordinated among engineers and between engineers and their managers appears to perpetuate these work-time standards and norms Both the theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Examines the interplay between institutional constraints and management decision making in clothing manufacturing firms in Hungary. Emphasis on managerial action; Contrast on production paradigms between indigenous owned enterprise and direct foreign investment firm; Effectivity of time discipline.

This article presents a study which focused on the formation of the technical consultancy type of firm in Great Britain compared to its formation in Hungary and Poland. In Great Britain, the growth of technical consultancies appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon, confined largely to the 1980s. An examination of the three sectors: professional or technical services, computer services, and research and development, reveals considerable growth in the number of people employed during that period. After 1989, the number of technical consultancies in Hungary increased dramatically, with many engineering consultancies and development companies being formed as spin-out enterprises that seceded from research institutes and university departments. The growth of such new businesses was encouraged by both the public sector, the state and local governments, and various entrepreneurial alliances. The emergence of small technical consultancy firms in Poland since 1989 has resulted very much from the phenomenon known as forced entrepreneurship. With the market reorientation and industrial restructuring that has occurred since the collapse of the Communist regime, the managers, scientists and engineers made redundant by the previously state-owned enterprises have not always been willing or able to secure full-time employment.

Based on reference group and cognitive bias considerations, we advance a theory, explicated via a computer simulation, to explain (1) people's perceptions of how equalitarian the class system is, (2) where people place themselves in the class system, (3) where people place others' occupations, and (4) people's estimates of the pay of different occupations. Using a new set of diagrammatic and verbal questions on class, we test our hypotheses on large, representative national samples in Australia (N = 6,177) and Hungary (N = 2,606). A full-information maximum-likelihood analysis strongly supports the hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Internal labor markets" take different forms in the capitalist and the socialist firm as the distinctive organizational problems in each economic system produce differing but comparable institutional solutions. Analysis of systemic uncertainties and the organizational responses of workers and managers yields a comparative model of mirrored opposition: in economies in which the firm operates in a market environment, systemic uncertainties regarding labor are reduced through internal bureaucratic rules operating according to a classificatory logic. In the socialist economy, by contrast, where systemic uncertainties are produced by a bureaucratic environment, the firm responds through internal market transactions based on affiliative ties. The market-like character of these internal mechanisms is brought into even sharper relief in an analysis of the recent establishment in Hungary of semi-autonomous subcontracting units inside the enterprise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparative studies of capitalist and state socialist countries have rested on weak empirical bases, namely the comparison of ideal type models or comparisons of the realities (often distorted) of one society with an ideal type of the other. This is Particularly true of the firm, which has remained a black box in conventional analyses of state socialism. On the basis of case studies of two comparable firms, one in the United States and one in Hungary, we criticize eight stereotypes that underly the presumption that state socialist firms are necessarily less efficient than capitalist firms. We then propose conditions under which capitalist firms may be less technically efficient than state socialist firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 1923 and 1973, the Hungarian educational system experienced great changes in institutional structure and policies related to disparities in the allocation of schooling. An analysis of historical changes in inequalities in the odds of persons progressing from given forms of schooling to others indicates the consequences of these shifting policies, and the process through which the overall disparities in schooling changed. As in the United States (Mare, 1981) and Britain (Halsey et al., 1980), the overall odds of everyone completing the lowest progressions increased, pushing everyone up to the higher schooling progressions, where socioeconomic differentials are generally smaller; however, in contrast to the case in the U.S. and Britain, socioeconomic differentials in the odds of given progressions did not increase across cohorts. In fact, for the progression to completion of primary education, such differentials declined. Differentials based on gender showed large cross-cohort decreases, but changes in the effects of place of residence were modest. These changes in Hungary appear to demonstrate the effectiveness of both the elimination of a class-based dual structure of primary education and administrative control over the process of social selection as a means of substantially reducing socioeconomic inequalities in the allocation of schooling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the book "Socialist Entrepreneurs: Embourgeoisement in Rural Hungary," by Ivan Szeleny, in collaboration with Robert Manchin, Pál Juhász, Bálint Magyar and Bill Martin. The empirical focus of the book is the changing class structure of Hungarian agriculture. In contrast to prevailing views, whether from Marxist or modernization theories, which hold that the development of socialism will sweep away the peasantry and produce a homogeneous class of rural workers, Szelenyi shows that only about ten to thirty percent of Hungarian rural society "live exclusively or overwhelmingly from wages and salaries." Instead of proletarianization, the typical agricultural household participates in a mixture of organizational and property forms combining waged employment with private petty commodity production on small house-plots. Activities on these "minifarms" range from simple gardening to raising livestock to specialized hothouse agriculture whose products are distributed through independent commercial channels on national markets. Although these mini-forms comprise only about twelve percent of Hungary's arable land, on them 1.5 million small farmers produce twenty-five percent of all agricultural commodities and thirty-four percent of the gross farm product.

Presents information on the institutional transformation and enterprise changes 27 Hungarian enterprises underwent in the early 1990s. Details on the collapse of state socialism in Eastern Europe; Reference to the changes state-owned enterprises made; Information on the analysis of enterprise ownership in Hungary.

Inter-firm relationships vary greatly between capitalist economies as a result of institutional differences, especially in forms of trust and prevalent mechanisms of ensuring that commercial agreements are kept. The transformation of the command economies of Eastern Europe since 1989 and the intensification of competition in their major markets might be expected to destroy previous connections between suppliers and customers and generate instead short-term, ad hoc contractual relationships. However, this study of ten large enterprises in Hungary found that contractual relations between them tended to be more similar to the Japanese firms studied by Sako in her Prices, Quality and Trust (1992) than to the British ones. This seems to reflect the limited extent of change in products, markets and organizational structures of these firms - and the gradual approach to transformation adopted in Hungary as a whole - as well as their specialization in particular industrial branches and their high degree of mutual dependence through debt. Continued dependence on the state has meant that competition between these firms for political support remains important and so they compete more across industrial sectors than within them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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An interview is presented with Gábor Demszky, the Hungarian politician and sociologist. Topics of interview includes his skills of silk-screening at an independent publishing house in Hungary in 1980s, struggle of Central Europeans to free themselves from the Soviet totalitarian system and his admire for essays in the book " The Gulag Archipelago" by Adam Michnik.

Haemoccult screening for colorectal tumours was carried out in Hungary in small cities and villages around Budapest. Haemoccult slides were supplied to 17 662 individuals over 40 years of age, and 15431 (87%) were returned. Of these, 346 (2.2%) were positive and 18 colorectal carcinomas were detected. Additionally, 24 patients with one or more polyps > 1 cm diameter were found. Of the screened cases of cancer 39% were in Dukes' stage A and B, a rate twice as good as when screening was not done. The cost per tumour detected amounted to about three times more than one monthly income, indicating that the costs of screening for colorectal cancer are relatively much higher in Hungary than in Western countries. All expenses were met from state funds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]