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Climate change is likely to have significant impacts on the forestry sector in New Zealand. However, an understanding of how forest growers are reducing their risks from climate change impacts is still in its infancy. This paper applies the protection motivation theory to identify socio-psychological factors influencing forest growers' adaptation to climate change. This study presents the survey results from 60 forest growers who have the combined responsibility for managing more than 70% of New Zealand's plantation forests. We investigated whether their perceived response efficacy, self-efficacy and their understanding of response costs are predictors of their protective or adaptive measures. Based on our survey, risk reduction and risk spreading are the two types of protective measure frequently reported by the respondents to deal with climate risks. Consistent with the protection motivation theory, our findings show that respondents who are more likely to implement protective or adaptive measures if they perceive the threat severity to be high have high self-efficacy and resource efficacy, and exhibit low maladaptive responses such as evading and postponing behaviours. Furthermore, our findings also suggest that there is a low self-efficacy belief with strong maladaptive behaviour among the respondents that negatively influence their motivation to implement adaptation measures. This result provides guidance to policy makers, researchers and forest companies on how to make climate change adaptation efforts effective by considering the forest growers motivation to adapt to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India's economy is rooted in agriculture, and the majority of the farmers, being smallholders, are highly exposed to the adversities associated with climate change. It has been argued by several researchers that perceiving climate change is a pre-condition for the adoption of adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerabilities. In this regard, studies are limited to explore the question 'is the perceptions of changing climate primarily motivate the smallholders to take adaptation actions?' In this nexus, the present paper seeks to understand the linkages between smallholders' climate change perception and the changes in their farming practices. The study was conducted in the seven villages of Sub-Himalayan West Bengal, India, using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools. Key results show, (1) respondents perceived increased warming and decreased precipitation in accordance with the scientific analysis; (2) abundance of groundwater, misconceptions and lack of awareness shaped respondents' agricultural risk perception, and despite decreasing precipitation, water management appeared less risky (3) incorporation of irrigation, diversification towards high valued and high yielding crops, as well as farm mechanizations were the major changes in the farming practices; and, (4) except water management, rest of the changes were not necessarily made to adapt with climate change instead to increase crop yield and profit. It is noticed that the changes in farming practices perhaps made the farmers unconsciously adapted to climate change. Still, a prolonged continuation of some of those practices may lead to maladaptation. In this regard, we have given direction towards necessary policy formulation and future research to achieve sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has diverse physical and socio-economic implications for communities in semi-arid areas. While several studies have sought to understand the underlying power relations that shape adaptive capacities of rural farmers, fewer studies have focused on unpacking the differences within the different social groups. In this paper, we present a case study based on women smallholder farmers from semi-arid Ghana. It explores their nuanced perceptions of climate variability and highlights how gender intersects with other identities, roles and responsibilities to influence adaptation strategies and barriers to adaptation in the semi-arid context. Farm-level data was collected from 103 women farmers using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Rainfall patterns were perceived by the women farmers to be increasingly erratic and perceptions of average temperatures were that they are increasing. Adoption of adaptation strategies were influenced by socio-demographic factors such as age, marital and residential status, which also influenced decision-making and power dynamics within the household. The paper highlighted the complex relationships that mediate women farmers' access to resources and influence their vulnerability to climate variability and change. Highlighting the intra-gender differences that shaped the adaptation options and adaptive capacity is a prerequisite for proper adaptation policy planning and targeting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A primary goal of studying climate change adaptation is to identify the adaptation options that are used to improve crop productivity or reduce the negative impacts of climate change. Many of the adjustments in farm management that farmers adopt do not necessarily represent true adaptations to climate change, an issue often ignored in existing literature and resulting in a risk that policy makers are misled to think that adaptation is easier than it actually is, and thereby underestimate the challenge that climate change presents. The overall goal of this study is to identify whether farmers’ adoptions are enhancing food production and adapting to climate change. The identification uses a plot-level panel from a survey of 619 rural households in three provinces in China and county-level weather data. With the use of plot and county-by-year fixed effects as well as instrumental variable approaches, our estimates show that the autonomous adoptions are not effective in improving crop yields. This implies that farmers’ adoptions cannot be always considered adaptations to climate change. The paper provides a possible explanation for the results and concludes with policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability and change make agricultural sector a risky venture for smallholders' farmers. This paper presents an assessment of smallholder farmers' perceptions of climate variability and change, associated impacts on agricultural sector and the adaptive responses given in Fincha'a sub-basin of the Blue Nile River Basin of Ethiopia. We interviewed 380 head of households selected through systematic random sampling from eight Kebeles, two each from highland, midland, wetland, and lowland agro-ecosystems. Furthermore, focus group discussion and key informant interviews also performed to supplement and substantiate the quantitative data. Descriptive statistics used to summarize quantitative data and χ2 tests used to measure significance. The result revealed that increased temperature, frequency and severity of extreme weather events (drought and flood), and overall change in seasonality of rainfall over the last 20 years is a widely held perception. The associated impacts on agriculture include decline in length of growing period, the decreased and variability of water availability, increased crop damage by insects, pests, disease and weeds. In response, farmers practiced different adaptation measures like modification in crop and livestock production practices, and investment in land and water management activities at household and community level. The study also revealed the presence of multiple barriers that hindered the adoption of adaptation measures. To meet the impending challenges, situate by climate variability and change the adaptation measures implemented until now is not adequate. There is also extrication between farmers' perceptions of climate variability and change, and actual adaptation level. Despite significant number of farmers' perceived changes in temperature (about 93%) and rainfall (about 88%), the number of farmers adopted certain adaptation measures are below average. These necessitate the need for planned interventions to identify and support effective adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines climate change adaptation and gender issues through an application of a feminist intersectional approach. This approach permits the identification of diverse adaptation responses arising from the existence of multiple and fragmented dimensions of identity (including gender) that intersect with power relations to shape situation-specific interactions between farmers and ecosystems. Based on results from contrasting research cases in Bihar and Uttarakhand, India, this paper demonstrates, inter alia, that there are geographically determined gendered preferences and adoption strategies regarding adaptation options and that these are influenced by the socio-ecological context and institutional dynamics. Intersecting identities, such as caste, wealth, age and gender, influence decisions and reveal power dynamics and negotiation within the household and the community, as well as barriers to adaptation among groups. Overall, the findings suggest that a feminist intersectional approach does appear to be useful and worth further exploration in the context of climate change adaptation. In particular, future research could benefit from more emphasis on a nuanced analysis of the intra-gender differences that shape adaptive capacity to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically estimates farmers' willingness to pay (WTP) for a planned adaptation programme for addressing climate issues in Pakistan's agricultural sectors. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was employed to determine a monetary valuation of farmers' preferences for a planned adaptation programme by ascertaining the value attached to address climatic issues. The survey was conducted by distributing structured questionnaires among Pakistani farmers. The study found that 67 % of respondents were willing to pay for a planned adaptation programme. However, several socioeconomic and motivational factors exert greater influence on their willingness to pay (WTP). This paper specifies the steps needed for all institutional bodies to better address issues in climate change. The outcomes of this paper will support attempts by policy makers to design an efficient adaptation framework for mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to climate change in agricultural settings depends on understanding farmers' perceptions of the nature of climate change, their agency in adapting and the efficacy of adaptive measures themselves. Such knowledge can improve mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study addresses the limited understanding of how farmers appraise their private adaptive measures and influential factors. It uses data from structured interviews with 598 rice farmers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Based on protection motivation theory, farmers' assessments of private adaptive measures were measured by perceived self-efficacy, perceived adaptation efficacy and perceived adaptation cost. Multiple regressions were used to understand significant factors affecting those assessments. Some demographic and socio-economic factors, belief in climate change, information and objective resources were found to influence farmers' adaptation assessments. It is shown that the sources and quality of information are particularly important. The improvement of both the accessibility and usefulness of local services (e.g. irrigation, agricultural extension, credit and health care) is deemed a necessity for successful adaptation strategies in the Mekong Delta. The paper also shows the application of PMT in measuring farmers' appraisals of private adaptive measures to climate change, thereby opening this area for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change continues to affect food production and farmers incur additional costs to adopt appropriate adaptation strategies to combat its effects and attain food security. To enhance adaptive and sustainable coping strategies and food security, it is necessary to study the opportunity costs of implementing climate adaptations and how they influence the net revenue of farmers. Therefore, the study empirically investigates adaptation to climate change and the net revenue of cassava farmers in Southwest Nigeria. The primary data used for this study were collected through a well-structured questionnaire for 221 respondents. The analytical methods used were descriptive statistics, paired sample tests, and multiple regression. Analysis revealed that the majority (55%) of the sampled cassava farmers employed planting different varieties and using agrochemicals as their main adaptation strategies. The results revealed that insufficient funding and labour shortage were the main barriers to adaptation in the study area. The results of opportunity cost on net revenue and costs using paired samples test revealed that cassava farmers derived and perceived the utility and the net benefits using adaptation measures than when it is not used. The result of the regression showed that climate variables such as adaptation options, rainfall, and access to climate information are co-joint with socioeconomic and production factors to determine the average net revenue in the area. Therefore, the study suggests that the costs of adaptation resources should be subsidized by the government at affordable prices for the farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The savanna region of Africa is a potential breadbasket of the continent but is severely affected by climate change. Understanding farmers' perceptions of climate change and the types of adjustments they have made in their farming practices in response to these changes will offer some insights into necessary interventions to ensure a successful adaptation in the region. This paper explores how smallholder farmers in the Nigerian savanna perceive and adapt to climate change. It is based on a field survey carried out among 200 smallholder farm households selected from two agro-ecological zones. The results show that most of the farmers have noticed changes in climate and have consequently adjusted their farming practices to adapt. There are no large differences in the adaptation practices across the region, but farmers in Sudan savanna agro-ecological zone are more likely to adapt to changes in temperature than those in northern Guinea savanna. The main adaptation methods include varying planting dates, use of drought tolerant and early maturing varieties and tree planting. Some of the farmers are facing limitations in adapting because of lack of information on climate change and the suitable adaptation measures and lack of credit. The study then concludes that to ensure successful adaptation to climate change in the region, concerted efforts are needed to design and promote planned adaptation measures that fit into the local context and also to educate farmers on climate change and appropriate adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coffee is grown in more than 60 tropical countries on over 11 million ha by an estimated 25 million farmers, most of whom are smallholders. Several regional studies demonstrate the climate sensitivity of coffee ( Coffea arabica) and the likely impact of climate change on coffee suitability, yield, increased pest and disease pressure and farmers' livelihoods. The objectives of this paper are (i) to quantify the impact of progressive climate change to grow coffee and to produce high quality coffee in Nicaragua and (ii) to develop an adaptation framework across time and space to guide adaptation planning. We used coffee location and cup quality data from Nicaragua in combination with the Maxent and CaNaSTA crop suitability models, the WorldClim historical data and the CMIP3 global circulation models to predict the likely impact of climate change on coffee suitability and quality. We distinguished four different impact scenarios: Very high (coffee disappears), high (large negative changes), medium (little negative changes) and increase (positive changes) in climate suitability. During the Nicaraguan coffee roundtable, most promising adaptation strategies were identified, which we then used to develop a two-dimensional adaptation framework for coffee in time and space. Our analysis indicates that incremental adaptation may occur over short-term horizons at lower altitudes, whereas the same areas may undergo transformative adaptation in the longer term. At higher elevations incremental adaptation may be needed in the long term. The same principle and framework is applicable across coffee growing regions around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is expected to severely impact agricultural practices in many important food-producing regions, including the Northeast United States. Changing climate conditions, such as increases in the amount of rainfall, will require farmers to adapt. Yet, little is known with regard to farmers' perceptions and understandings about climate change, especially in the industrialized country context. This paper aims at overcoming this research limitation, as well as determining the existing contextual, cognitive, and psychological barriers that can prevent adoption of sustainable practices of farmers in New York State. The study is framed within the adaptive capacity and risk perception literature, and is based on a qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews with farmers in 21 farms in two counties in Central New York. The results reveal diverging views about the long-term consequences of climate change. Results also reveal that past experience remains as the most important source of information that influences beliefs and perceptions about climate change, confirming previous research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farmers' behavioural attitudes towards climate change are complex and poorly understood, making difficult the development of mitigation and adaptation policies that would be accepted and implemented. So far, the scientific literature has not clearly framed behavioural barriers related to the uptake of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Therefore behavioural barriers are frequently not considered in the modelling framework for climate change policy assessments. This paper presents a method that frames farmers' behavioural barriers and analyses their main determinants in order to incorporate behavioural constraints in the modelling frameworks. Three focus group discussions and a household survey were carried out in order to assess farmers' behavioural barriers taking into account the perspectives of both farmers and agricultural technical advisors. The analytical framework includes Principal Component Analysis to identify behavioural barriers and a binary Logit model to analyse the marginal effects of their main determinants. Farming experience, educational attainment and receiving climate information seem to be the key factors that determine the probability of displaying or not displaying most behavioural barriers. This work presents a method to model behavioural barriers in the context of the adoption of climate change adaptation and mitigation practices. Since a better understanding of behavioural barriers can help to enhance the support of mitigation and adaptation policies to farmers, this study could provide a valuable contribution to the deliberation of climate change policies in Kenya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effective adaptation of smallholders in regions severely affected by climate change is critical to their survival and development. This study provides insights into the climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders in the Yellow River-Huangshui River Valley (YHV), located on the eastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). The YHV is an important food-producing region on the TP. Climate change is threatening the livelihoods of local households. This study uses data from 494 household questionnaires, meteorological station data, and disaster statistics reports collected in the YHV region to understand the climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders and explore the factors that influence their strategies using the multivariate probit (MVP) model. The study found that frequent droughts, wind hail, and floods significantly impact agriculture in the YHV. Smallholders in the YHV adopted six main adaptation strategies to cope with the effects of climate change: crop rotation (88.25%), increasing agricultural inputs (75.30%), changing crop sowing times (61.94%), engaging in off-farm activities (50.20%), expanding cropland areas (32.59%), and raising more livestock (15.99%). The MVP model results indicated that smallholders' perceptions of disasters (drought, wind hail, and flood) have a significant impact on their adaptation strategies. An increase in perceived disasters positively and significantly affected off-farm strategies but negatively affected agricultural adaptation strategies. Although increasing the labor cost of agricultural production, the number of cropland plots to some extent encourages smallholders to adopt agricultural adaptation strategies and discourages the adoption of off-farm activities. Additionally, smallholder adaptation strategies were significantly influenced by various indicators including number of livestock, proportion of agricultural equipment, elevation, and off-farm income. The study proposes targeted policy recommendations to promote sustainable development of local households' livelihoods. These include strengthening household coping capacities for droughts, wind hail and floods, promoting skills training, encouraging agricultural scaling operations and off-farm livelihood transformation for certain small farmers, and considering the environmental impacts of household adaptational strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Southeast Asian countries are confronting climate variability, challenging agricultural sustainability and rural livelihoods. However, little research effort has been devoted to exploring how farmers in those countries perceive climate variability and how the perceptions link to adaptive responses. This paper deploys information from three focus group discussions with 30 male farmers; and six in-depth interviews with one female and five male agricultural officers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Recorded 34-year meteorological data in the delta from 1978 to 2011 is also incorporated to demonstrate the actual climate variability of the region. We find that farmers are becoming increasingly conscious of local climate variability issues. However, they have limited understanding of the importance of adaptation to their livelihoods. They also have limited knowledge of where and who to contact for appropriate climate change adaptation information. No opinions about the link between global warming and local climate variability and change were observed. Casual observation via public media and personal experience dominated farmers' sources of information. Barriers to farmers' adaptation are not exclusively restricted to socio-economic factors and resource constraints; e.g. land tenure, technical knowledge, market, social relationship, credit, information, health care, and demographics. Maladaptation, habit, and the perception of the importance of climate variability and adaptation are found as additional constraints. Observed differences in farmers' and agricultural officers' perspectives regarding barriers to farmers' adaptation suggest important policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses serious challenges for populations whose livelihoods depend principally on natural resources. Given the increases in extreme weather events projected to adversely affect the arid and semi-arid regions of Iran, adaptation of the agricultural sector is imperative. Few studies have addressed the farmers' adaptation in Iran, and little is known about ongoing adaptation strategies in use. Adopting principal component analysis/fuzzy logic-based method, this paper considers the agricultural adaptation to climate variability. A survey of 255 farmers of Fars Province, selected through a multistage stratified random sampling method, revealed different levels of adaptation, specifically the low, moderate and high, which are principally distinguished by various degrees of sensitivity and adaptive capacity. The study also identified the main adaptation strategies used by farmers in response to climate-related shocks. Results indicated that although a large percentage of farmers make some adjustments to their farming practices, there are significant differences in choice of adaptation strategies by the adaptation categories. Some conclusions and recommendations are offered to increase the adaptive capacity of farmers and reduce negative impacts of climate variability and change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapidly changing climatic conditions are adversely impacting the Indian agricultural sector. Farmers are frequently seen adopting several adaptation measures, which are neither equally efficient nor mutually exclusive. Based on the primary data collected from 300 farming households of the Indian Eastern Himalayan foothills, the present study attempts to examine the efficiency of local farmers' adaptation by developing indices combining the feasibility, effectiveness, and sustainability of the adaptation measures with the scale of actual adoption. Further, by employing multiple linear regression, the study analyzes the internal (psychological) and external (physical and socio-economic) factors influencing higher scores of these indices. Results show that local farmers are well aware of climate change and are responding through implementing at least one and up to seven adaptation measures. Farmers preferred agroforestry, a shift from cereals to low water-intensive commercials, irrigation, and intensification of winter crops as the most efficient. There was, however, a misalignment between the perceived efficiency of adaptation measures and their scale of adoption. Farmers' perceptions of pest infestation, satisfaction with farming, soil characteristics, farm size, remittances, and access to credit were found to be positively and significantly influencing the adaptation indices, while open-mindedness toward changing farming practices and crop-raiding by elephants were found to be negatively and significantly associated with adaptation indices. Lastly, the study made relevant recommendations for improving farmers' efficiency in adopting appropriate adaptation measures and strengthening the "State Action Plan on Climate Change". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farmers' willingness and ability to adapt to climate change are in part influenced by their social networks and sources of information. Drawing on assemblage theory and social network analysis in a novel way, this study explores the influence of Oregonian small farmers' social and informational networks on their beliefs about and responses to climate change. The use of assemblage theory, which focuses on many disparate elements as they co-function in a space, allows for multiple entities within farmers' networks and the ways they interact to be examined, while the use of social network analysis highlights broader patterns in the structure and composition of farmers' networks. Theoretically, this study brings these two distinct yet similar bodies of theory and methodologies together for the first time to expand the utility of both fields and explore farmers' networks in a novel way. Results indicate that small farmers' connections to other farmers and media in their networks are influencing their beliefs about climate change, while their responses are influenced by their ties to various agricultural and climatological information sources, as well as other nearby farmers. Finally, while farmers' ties to other farmers are largely limited to those nearby, certain central individuals and entities, particularly beginning farmers, can act as bridges linking distinct groups of farmers. An understanding of these networks can be used to better disseminate critical information, such as forecasts and adaptation strategies, to help farmers adapt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change impacts are visible, ranging from local, national, and regional to the global scale. It disproportionately impacts the poor and those dependent on natural resources for their day-to-day livelihood activities. With an objective to assess the vulnerability of farmers to climate change, this study was conducted in the Chitre Village Development Committee (VDC) of the Panchase protected forest of Nepal. Seventy-one household surveys, two focused group discussions, and three key informant interviews were conducted to collect primary data. Temperature and precipitation data (from 1980 to 2020) were taken from the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology in Nepal. The maximum and minimum temperatures and pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and winter rainfalls have increasing trends, while the monsoon rainfall has a decreasing trend. The maximum temperature has increased by 0.0415 °C per year, and the annual rainfall has increased by 0.619 mm per year. Different parts of the study area have different levels of exposure, sensitivity, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability. The greater the adaptive capacity, the lesser the vulnerability and the vulnerability index. Adaptive strategies must be incorporated with local knowledge and institutional support to achieve climate resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Asia and the Pacific, the agriculture sector is the most important, but it is also the most at risk from climate chnage. Droughts are one of the main sources of disaster risks that can change yield levels and cause sizeable productivity losses in agricultural products. In response, the farmers are taking a number of climate-related risk-reduction steps. As a result, this study has investigated farmers' preferences for climate change adaptation strategies as well as their socioeconomic determinants. A random sample of 200 farmers in Nowshehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, were surveyed. A multivariate probit model was used in the study to determine the relationship between independent variables and farmers decisions to implement a specific adaptation strategy. According to the findings of the study, the most common methods of coping with drought were rainwater harvesting, soil conservation, changing crop planting dates, ponds, and terraces with spillways. Furthermore, the study highlighted the role of socio-economic determinants in the adoption of these adaptation strategies. In light of these findings, the government may choose to help these farmers by providing them with ponds and water storage facilities. It is critical to educate farmers about climate change so that they can develop strategies to mitigate its negative effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is projected to have serious environmental, economic, and social impacts on Ghana, particularly on rural farmers whose livelihoods depend largely on rainfall. The extent of these impacts depends largely on awareness and the level of adaptation in response to climate change. This study examines the perception of farmers in Sekyedumase district of Ashanti region of Ghana on climate change and analyzes farmers' adaptation responses to climate change. A hundred and eighty farming households were interviewed in February and October 2009. Results showed that about 92% of the respondents perceived increases in temperature, while 87% perceived decrease in precipitation over the years. The major adaptation strategies identified included crop diversification, planting of short season varieties, change in crops species, and a shift in planting date, among others. Results of logit regression analysis indicated that the access to extension services, credit, soil fertility, and land tenure are the four most important factors that influence farmers' perception and adaptation. The main barriers included lack of information on adaptation strategies, poverty, and lack of information about weather. Even though the communities are highly aware of climate issues, only 44.4% of farmers have adjusted their farming practices to reduce the impacts of increasing temperature and 40.6% to decreasing precipitation, giving lack of funds as the main barrier to implementing adaptation measure. Implications for policymaking will be to make credit facilities more flexible, to invest in training more extension officers and more education on climate change and adaptation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the literature on adaptation to drought has increasingly focused on investigating farmers' understanding of drought, no comprehensive study has been conducted on behavior determinants and farmers' adaptation strategies so far. To address this research gap, the current study was performed to investigate the effective factors and determinants on applying adaptation strategies by farmers in Iran. The statistical sample of the study included 430 farmers in East Azerbaijan province (located in northwest of Iran) selected through multistage sampling method. Study results after categorization of adaptation strategies (AS) first indicated that, the farmers under study suffer from a lack of high adaptation but in order to add more accuracy and grouping farmers' strategies in drought condition, exploratory factor analysis was applied in which they were categorized as self-control, active and integrated strategies. Next, structural equation modeling was adopted to study the effective factors on applying AS by farmers confronted with the drought. The results showed that, social, environmental, infrastructure, and economic factors exert a positively significant effect on selecting the AS whereas, human-related factors were proved to have an insignificant effect on adopting the AS. The results associated with structural equations indicated that, effective factors account for 93.3% of variance in application of AS which is a highly considerable rate. Indeed, these results revealed high importance of social factor, environmental factor, infrastructure factor and economic factors in applying the AS among the farmers. Therefore, our findings offered solutions as to how to reduce risks in farmers' activities during drought conditions to improve adaptation behavior of Iranian farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this study was to capture farmers' perceptions and adaptations to climate change in agriculture sector. Along with this, it also identified farmers' adaptations to perceived climate change. Binary logit models were applied on data of 386 farmers, collected from three different agro-ecological zones of Punjab, Pakistan, to present a comprehensive analysis of different adaptation strategies missing in the existing literature. The coefficients of a binary logit model only explain the direction of change; therefore, to see the magnitude of change, marginal effects were also estimated. Findings revealed that farmers perceived climate change and opted different adaptation strategies. Results of binary logit models described age, education, farming experience, landholding, access to climate information, access to credit facilities, and access to extension services as important determinants of adaptation. This research also found lack of access to climate information, lack of irrigation resources, and knowledge about appropriate adaptations as key constraints in adaptation process. This situation can be improved by enhancing institutional support and capacity. It is suggested that improved agricultural education with better access to climate information and extension services affects the farmers' well-being directly and hence is good for the economy of Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some of the measures to be taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are related to agricultural activities. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a method allowing implementation of agricultural practices in compliance with the efforts to combat climate change. CSA is an approach guiding agricultural systems under changing climate conditions to provide sustainable development and food safety. The targets of this approach included sustainable increase in agricultural production, resistance and adaptation to climate change and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Farmer participation and level of consciousness play a significant role in successful implementation of CSA. The present study was conducted to put forth farmers' adaptation of climate change. Farmer perceptions or approaches to CSA were taken into consideration. In the study, the literature was examined to analyze the adoption of CSA and the typology of CSA applications was developed. The typology consists of five categories: (1) soil management, (2) water management, (3) chemical input management, (4) crop diversification and (5) planting trees/agroforestry. Household survey data were used to create and test hypotheses about farmers' adoption of CSA. Nonparametric tests were used to estimate the socioeconomic variables that were effective in the adoption of CSA categories. The results generally show that CSA categories have high application potential among farmers. The factors influencing farmer decisions on these issues were identified as education, participation into agricultural meetings, land size and agricultural income. Such factors may guide policymakers while taking measures against climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry is often praised as a sustainable approach for the adaptation of smallholder farmers to climate change and variability in Africa. The environmental, economic, and social benefits of agroforestry can contribute to climate change adaptation efforts; however, most studies to date are quantitative and do not focus on specific natural hazards. To address these gaps, this study draws from the concepts of vulnerability and adaptation to explore how individuals from 20 smallholder farming households in semi-arid Isiolo County, Kenya have benefited from their agroforestry trees during drought and flood events. A total of 83 qualitative interviews were conducted with both male and female household heads. The interviews were recorded, and interview text was coded into major themes. The results highlight (1) the contributions of agroforestry trees to reducing sensitivity and increasing adaptive capacity to drought and flood events, as well as (2) the key characteristics of drought-important and flood-important agroforestry trees. In both drought and flood events agroforestry had an important role to play in reducing sensitivity, largely through improving environmental conditions (shade, soil erosion, windbreaker, microclimate regulation), and increasing adaptive capacity by providing critical tree products and financial benefits (fruit, food, firewood, construction materials, fodder, traditional medicines, money from sales of fruit products). Agriculture is often considered the livelihood strategy most vulnerable to climate change, and thus better understanding how to adapt agriculture to the impacts of climate change is critical for both the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and global food security efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the wake of deepened situations of changing climate, a clear understanding of the perceived impacts and adaptation of climate variability and change on livelihoods of vegetable farmers in Western and Eastern Africa, which is not readily available, is critical for sustainable vegetable production in Africa. Development planning for climate change vulnerability and adaptation assessment was utilised in the study. Using multi-stage sampling procedure, 193 vegetable farmers in selected sites prominent for vegetable production from Uganda, Ghana and Nigeria were used. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, analysis of variance and linear regression at α0.05. Awareness of climate variability and change was high among most respondents from the three countries, but highest among respondents from Uganda (78.3%). Awareness was highest for long dry spell ( x ¯ = 1.90) and drought ( x ¯ = 1.81) and lowest for harmful gas emissions ( x ¯ = 0.76). Changes in climate variability and trends were perceived to be highest in terms of flood volume/damage caused by flood to farmlands in Nigeria ( x ¯ = 3.85) and Uganda ( x ¯ = 5.0), but in terms of increased temperature for Ghana ( x ¯ = 4.93). Impact of climate-related changes on vegetable farming was high in Ghana (98.3%) and Nigeria (46.6%) but low in Uganda (5.0%). Awareness (β = 0.14), perception (β = 0.15) use of adaptation strategies (β = 0.10) and household size (β = − 0.19) predicted change in perceived impact of climate variability among vegetable farmers. Vegetable farmers in Nigeria, Ghana and Uganda are affected differently by climate variability. Farmers in these countries also have different priorities for adaptation strategies. Locality-specific climate adaptation strategies would help ease farmers burden due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though climate events pose increasing challenges for crop and animal production in Africa, most climate adaptation studies focus on staple food crops. Few studies have examined climate adaptation for livestock with even fewer looking at small animals such as poultry. Heat stress associated with climate change is a severe challenge to poultry farmers due to its negative effect on chicken growth and productivity. As poultry plays an important food security role across Africa (being a source of livelihood and an important source of animal protein), understanding how farmers deal with the realities of poultry production due to climate change is critical. This study explores the level and determinants of the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies among poultry farmers in Nigeria. A multivariate probit analysis (which allows for the possibility that the decision to adopt various practices are jointly made) reveals that while poultry farmers are adapting to climate change, there is a clear heterogeneity of adaptation strategies at different production scales. Small farms tend to invest in traditional strategies such as the stocking of local breeds while medium and large farms adopt modern technologies such as air and water ventilation as well as the use of low energy bulbs that emit less heat. Our study finds that farmers who have experienced heat-related losses are more likely to adopt modern practices and more likely to adopt multiple adaptation strategies concurrently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) modeling to investigate the short- and long-term effects of climate change on Tunisian cereal farming. The Pooled Mean Group (PMG) estimation as well as Granger causality tests conducted on a regional panel of the country, covering a time horizon from 1975 to 2014, showed that climate change issues still persist in Tunisia, affecting negatively and increasingly the cereal output. This study proves that negative effects of climate are rather felt when there is a shortage of rainfall, whereas the current temperature levels are still in favor of cereal crop. The findings indicate that cereal farming requires a continuous technology pack deployment and a favorable climate. However, an unanticipated long-run relationship has been observed between cereal production and labor. As a result of this research, recommendations were built around two major strategies, namely yield improvement and farmers' income stabilization to mitigate the unpredictable effects of climate change and hazardous events. The implementation of a production and regional specialization map and the adoption of an anti-drought insurance system in addition to compensation payment would be a suitable adaptation policy to climate change effects and for the sustainability of Tunisian agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is to identify the major methods used by local farmers to adapt to the drought hazard and to examine factors influencing their decisions to adapt in Yongqiao District, China. A random sampling technique was used to select 200 households in Yongqiao, while descriptive statistics and binary logit models were used to analyze the data obtained from the households. The results show that most farmers in the study area were aware of climate change. They were taking measures to protect their livelihoods against perceived change in climate. Results indicate that factors explaining farmers' adaptation choices include gender, the level of education, farming experience, farm size, household income, and perceptions of climate change impacts. The findings of this study can help decision-makers to design appropriate adaptation policies to cope with and adapt in drought situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some recent funding programmes in Australia on climate adaptation have expected active engagement with farmers in research projects. Based on our direct experience with 30 farmers and their advisors, we list five reasons why it is difficult to gain traction with farmers in discussing the likely impacts of climate change on their farms and the possible adaptation options they should be considering in preparation for a future changed climate. The reasons concern the slow and uncertain trajectory for changes in climate relative to the time horizon for farm decision-making, when set against short-term fluctuations in weather, prices, costs and government policy. Farmers have optimism for ongoing technological progress keeping abreast of any negative impacts of climate on their production. As one moves from incremental to transformational adaptation options, biophysical research has less to offer because decisions become based more on business structure, portfolio management, off-farm investments and geographical diversification. Some farmers also doubt the intentions of climate change researchers and are wary of anything they may have to offer. We propose there is an actionable decision space where agricultural science and economics can contribute to meaningful analysis of impacts and adaptation to climate change by farmers. This will involve emphasising the principles of farm management rather than defining optimal farm plans; the use of scenario planning to explore possible futures in a turbulent environment for farming; a focus on short-term adjustments as a path to longer term adaptation; re-gaining the trust of some farmers towards climate change scientists through better communication strategies; and understanding the linkages between adaptation options and enabling factors and technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An in-depth understanding of the multiple layers of factors that shape farmers' knowledge and perception of climatic risks and their adaptive responses is a prerequisite for well-targeted agricultural adaptation planning. However, while farmers' perception is increasingly understood as being a key determinant, a conceptual framework that includes this focus of analyses is currently not available. Against this background, this study analyzes the agricultural adaptation context in two Tanzanian villages building on a newly developed agricultural adaptation and perception model (AAP). The AAP contains five dimensions as a frame of reference for empirical adaptation models: non-climatic determinants of vulnerability (1), general trends in livelihood strategies (2), perception of climatic trends (3), climate impacts in agriculture (4) and potentials and obstacles for adaptation (5). Empirical data were collected by applying various tools of rapid rural appraisal, a stakeholder workshop and supplementary interviews. The qualitative data were coded along the dimensions of the AAP and analyzed by means of qualitative content analysis. The results show that adaptation levels, sensitivities of the farming systems as well as perception and narratives about climatic and yield dynamics differ considerably among the two farming communities. Furthermore, farmers' adaptation responses are influenced by both their framing of climatic trends as well as the multiple benefits that the local agricultural systems provide. Thus, for improving food security in the face of climate change, farmers' perceptions and the multi-functionality of agricultural systems need to be explicitly recognized by agronomic adaptation research, and adaptation policy making should involve detailed vulnerability assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent level changes in Lake Chad are associated with large area changes because the lakebed is almost flat. They have deeply impacted the lifestyle of local populations. The Mober are the main ethnic group living in the surroundings of Bosso, in eastern Niger near the Yobe River and in Lake Chad. They were initially herders and farmers who developed flood-retreat farming and sophisticated irrigation systems. But their main activity during high Lake levels was fishing: it provided food as well as substantial incomes, thanks to the export of smoked and dried fish. Since 1973, Lake Chad has shrunk, mainly because of the decrease in rainfall in its southern hydrological basin, on the border between Chad and the Republic of Central Africa. On the border between Niger and Nigeria, the Yobe River discharge was more stable but it provided a minor input to the Lake. Large areas with rich soils, termed here as polders by analogy with those of the Bol region in Chad, became available and allowed maize, cowpeas, sorghum and vegetables farming without irrigation or fertilizer. This system is governed by the 'bulama,' chiefs of the villages and of the land that is still abundant. However, without any return of the Lake on the polders, there is a serious risk of soil exhaustion. Sweet pepper farming has been developed on the sandy Yobe borders since 1960, partly thanks to the local farmers' ancient knowledge of irrigation techniques. It requires an investment of capital to buy fertilizers, pesticides, and gasoline for the motor pumps. This farming system may not only provide high incomes, but it also promotes inequality between men and women on the one hand and on the other hand, between poor farmers, who must borrow money and who have to sell their harvest immediately, and those who are able to store their products and wait for the best prices. The Mober of Bosso were able to adapt to rapid changes in the level of the Lake firstly without public intervention due to their long-lasting pluriactivity. However, their ability to cope with stronger changes induced either by climate or by large projects aiming at restoring high Lake Chad levels should be carefully monitored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is a global challenge that has a particularly strong effect on developing countries such as Nepal, where adaptive capacity is low and where agriculture, which is highly dependent on climatic factors, is the main source of income for the majority of people. The nature and extent of the effects of climate change on rural livelihoods varies across Nepal in accordance with its highly diverse environmental conditions. In order to capture some of this variability, a comparative study was performed in two different ecological regions: Terai (lowland) and Mountain (upland) in the western development region of Nepal. The study focuses on perceptions of, and on adaptations to climate change by farmers. Information was collected from both primary and secondary data sources. Climate data were analyzed through trend analysis. Results show that most farmers perceive climate change acutely and respond to it, based on their own indigenous knowledge and experiences, through both agricultural and non-agricultural adaptations at an individual level. The study also shows that there is a need to go beyond the individual level, and to plan and provide support for appropriate technologies and strategies in order to cope with the expected increasing impacts of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this study are to explore the impacts of climatic variability on agriculture and to find out the viable options for adaptation to the changing climate. The primary data are collected through a questionnaire survey, key informant interviews and field observations in two agriculture-based villages of the Surma River basin. A household-level structured questionnaire survey was conducted on 260 households selected from 746 through simple random sampling. The study first explored the impacts of climatic variability on agriculture and fishery. Then, the existing adaptation measures undertaken by the farmer to combat the adverse impacts of climatic variability were identified. It was found that climatic variability adversely affects the crop production, crop diversity and cropping pattern in the study area. It hampers production rate, cultivation area, soil productivity and the mode of irrigation of an agricultural system of an area. Similarly, inauspicious climatic events also destroy the fishery and livestock sectors. In addition, the socioeconomic circumstances of farmers are also being influenced by climatic change. Hence, farmers are adopting feasible adaptation measures to cope with and adapt to the adverse and changing climatic events. The present study explored a number of indigenous and modern adaptation measures undertaken by the farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This study is aimed at analyzing farmers’ perception and adaptation to climate change in the Dabus watershed. It is based on analysis of data collected from 734 randomly selected farm householdheads substantiated with Focus Group Discussions and field observations.Methods: The study employed descriptive methods to assess farmers’ perception of climate change, localindicators of climate change and types of adaptation measures exercised to cop up with the risk of the change in climate. The study also employed the Heckman sample selection model to analyze the two-stepprocess of adaptation to climate change which initially requires farmers’ perception that climate is changingprior to responding to the changes through adaptation measures.Results: Based on the model result educational attainment, the age of the head of the household, thenumber of crop failures in the past, changes in temperature and precipitation significantly influencedfarmers’ perception of climate change in wet lowland parts of the study area. In dry lowland condition,farming experience, climate information, duration of food shortage, and the number of crop failuresexperienced determined farmers’ perception of climate change. Farmers’ adaptation decision in both the wet and dry lowland conditions is influenced by household size, the gender of household head, cultivatedland size, education, farm experience, non-farm income, income from livestock, climate information, extension advice, farm-home distance and number of parcels. However, the direction of influence and significance level of most of the explanatory variables vary between the two parts of the study area.Conclusions: In line with the results, any intervention that promotes the use of adaptation measures toclimate change may account for location-specific factors that determine farmers' perception of climate change and adaptive responses thereof. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]