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This study provides an empirical analysis on the main univariate and multivariate stylized facts iin return series of the two of the largest cryptocurrencies, namely Ethereum and Bitcoin. A Markov-Switching Vector AutoRegression model is considered to further explore the dynamic relationships between cryptocurrencies and other financial assets. We estimate the presence of volatility clustering, a rapid decay of the autocorrelation function, an excess of kurtosis and multivariate little cross-correlation across the series, except for contemporaneous returns. The analysis covers the pandemic period and sheds lights on the behaviour of cryptocurrencies under unexpected extreme events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cluster-weighted models (CWMs) extend finite mixtures of regressions (FMRs) in order to allow the distribution of covariates to contribute to the clustering process. In this article, we introduce 24 matrix-variate CWMs which are obtained by allowing both the responses and covariates in each cluster to be modelled by one of four existing skewed matrix-variate distributions or the matrix-variate normal distribution. Endowed with greater flexibility, our matrix-variate CWMs are able to handle this kind of data in a more suitable manner. As a by-product, the four skewed matrix-variate FMRs are also introduced. Maximum likelihood parameter estimates are derived using an expectation-conditional maximization algorithm. Parameter recovery, classification assessment, and the capability of the Bayesian information criterion to detect the underlying groups are investigated using simulated data. Lastly, our matrix-variate CWMs, along with the matrix-variate normal CWM and matrix-variate FMRs, are applied to two real datasets for illustrative purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a general approach to detect measurement non-invariance in latent Markov models for longitudinal data. We define different notions of differential item functioning in the context of panel data. We then present a model selection approach based on the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) to choose both the number of latent states and the measurement structure. We show the practical relevance by means of an extensive simulation study, and illustrate its use on two real–data examples from the social sciences. Our results indicate that BIC is able to select the correct measurement equivalence structure more than 95% of times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysis of matrix-variate data is becoming ever more prevalent in the literature, especially in the area of clustering and classification. Real data, including real matrix-variate data, are often contaminated by potential outlying observations. Their detection, as well as the development of models insensitive to their presence, is particularly important for this type of data because of the practical issues concerning their effective visualization. Herein, the matrix-variate contaminated normal distribution is discussed and then utilized in the mixture model paradigm for clustering. One key advantage of the proposed model is the ability to automatically detect potential outlying matrices by computing their a posteriori probability of being typical or atypical. Such detection is currently unavailable using existing matrix-variate methods. An expectation conditional maximization algorithm is used for parameter estimation, and both simulated and real data are used for illustration. Supplementary files for this article are available online. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article shows how multivariate elliptically contoured (EC) distributions, parameterized according to the mean vector and covariance matrix, can be built from univariate standard symmetric distributions. The obtained distributions are referred to as moment-parameterized EC (MEC) herein. As a further novelty, the article shows how to polynomially reshape MEC distributions and obtain distributions, called leptokurtic MEC (LMEC), having probability density functions characterized by a further parameter expressing their excess kurtosis with respect to the parent MEC distributions. Two estimation methods are discussed: the method of moments and the maximum likelihood. For illustrative purposes, normal, Laplace, and logistic univariate densities are considered to build MEC and LMEC models. An application to financial returns of a set of European stock indexes is finally presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research objective of this paper is to handle situations where the empirical distribution of multivariate real-valued data is elliptical and with heavy tails. Many statistical models already exist that accommodate these peculiarities. This paper enriches this branch of literature by introducing the multivariate tail-inflated normal (MTIN) distribution, an elliptical heavy tails generalization of the multivariate normal (MN). The MTIN belongs to the family of MN scale mixtures by choosing a convenient continuous uniform as mixing distribution. Moreover, it has a closed-form for the probability density function characterized by only one additional 'inflation' parameter, with respect to the nested MN, governing the tail-weight. The moment generating function, and the first four moments, are also derived; interestingly, the latter always exist and the excess kurtosis can assume any positive value. The method of moments and maximum likelihood (ML) are considered for estimation. As concerns the latter, a direct approach, as well as a variant of the EM algorithm (namely, the ECME algorithm), are illustrated. Furthermore, a way to approximate covariance matrix of the ML estimator is suggested and the existence of the ML estimates is evaluated. Since the inflation parameter is estimated from the data, robust estimates of the mean vector of the nested MN distribution are automatically obtained by down-weighting. Simulations are performed to compare the estimation methods/algorithms, to investigate the ability of AIC and BIC to select among a set of candidate elliptical models, and to evaluate the robustness of these candidate methods when data are skewed. The findings are the following: ML is better than MM, direct ML is suggested for low dimensions, while the ECME algorithm is to be preferred when the number of variables is higher, AIC and BIC work comparably in selecting the true underlying model, and the MTIN outperforms the competing models in terms of robustness toward skew data. For illustrative purposes, the MTIN distribution is finally fitted to multivariate financial data and compared with other well-established multivariate elliptical distributions. The analysis shows how the proposed model represents a valid alternative to the considered competitors in terms of AIC and BIC, but also in reproducing the higher empirical kurtosis which is common in the financial context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A correct modelization of the insurance losses distribution is crucial in the insurance industry. This distribution is generally highly positively skewed, unimodal hump-shaped, and with a heavy right tail. Compound models are a profitable way to accommodate situations in which some of the probability masses are shifted to the tails of the distribution. Therefore, in this work, a general approach to compound unimodal hump-shaped distributions with a mixing dichotomous distribution is introduced. A 2-parameter unimodal hump-shaped distribution, defined on a positive support, is considered and reparametrized with respect to the mode and to another parameter related to the distribution variability. The compound is performed by scaling the latter parameter by means of a dichotomous mixing distribution that governs the tail behavior of the resulting model. The proposed model can also allow for automatic detection of typical and atypical losses via a simple procedure based on maximum a posteriori probabilities. Unimodal gamma and log-normal are considered as examples of unimodal hump-shaped distributions. The resulting models are firstly evaluated in a sensitivity study and then fitted to two real insurance loss datasets, along with several well-known competitors. Likelihood-based information criteria and risk measures are used to compare the models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While latent class (LC) models with distal outcomes are becoming popular in literature as a consequence of the increasing use of stepwise estimators, these models still suffer from severe shortcomings. Namely, using the currently available stepwise estimators the direct effects between the distal outcome and the indicators of the LC membership cannot be easily modeled. At the same time using the traditional Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) approach the LC solution can become dominated by the distal outcome, especially when model misspecifications occur, and the relationship between the distal outcome and LC is strong. In this paper, we consider a more general formulation, typical in cluster-weighted models, which embeds both the latent class regression and the distal outcome models. This allows us to test simultaneously both whether the distribution of the distal outcome differs across classes, and whether there are significant direct effects of the distal outcome on the indicators, by including most of the information about the distal outcome – latent variable relationship. We propose a two-step estimator for these models that makes it possible to separate the estimation of the measurement and structural model, that is much desired for distal outcome models, while keeping the possibility of modeling direct effects open. We show the advantages of the proposed modeling approach through a simulation study and an empirical application on assets ownership of Italian households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insurance and economic data are often positive, and we need to take into account this peculiarity in choosing a statistical model for their distribution. An example is the inverse Gaussian (IG), which is one of the most famous and considered distributions with positive support. With the aim of increasing the use of the IG distribution on insurance and economic data, we propose a convenient mode-based parameterization yielding the reparametrized IG (rIG) distribution; it allows/simplifies the use of the IG distribution in various branches of statistics, and we give some examples. In nonparametric statistics, we define a smoother based on rIG kernels. By construction, the estimator is well-defined and does not allocate probability mass to unrealistic negative values. We adopt likelihood cross-validation to select the smoothing parameter. In robust statistics, we propose the contaminated IG distribution, a heavy-tailed generalization of the rIG distribution to accommodate mild outliers. Finally, for model-based clustering and semiparametric density estimation, we present finite mixtures of rIG distributions. We use the EM algorithm to obtain maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters of the mixture and contaminated models. We use insurance data about bodily injury claims, and economic data about incomes of Italian households, to illustrate the models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insurance and economic data are frequently characterized by positivity, skewness, leptokurtosis, and multi-modality; although many parametric models have been used in the literature, often these peculiarities call for more flexible approaches. Here, we propose a finite mixture of contaminated gamma distributions that provides a better characterization of data. It is placed in between parametric and non-parametric density estimation and strikes a balance between these alternatives, as a large class of densities can be implemented. We adopt a maximum likelihood approach to estimate the model parameters, providing the likelihood and the expected-maximization algorithm implemented to estimate all unknown parameters. We apply our approach to an artificial dataset and to two well-known datasets as the workers compensation data and the healthcare expenditure data taken from the medical expenditure panel survey. The Value-at-Risk is evaluated and comparisons with other benchmark models are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Portmanteau tests are typically used to test serial independence even if, by construction, they are generally powerful only in presence of pairwise dependence between lagged variables. In this article, we present a simple statistic defining a new serial independence test, which is able to detect more general forms of dependence. In particular, differently from the Portmanteau tests, the resulting test is powerful also under a dependent process characterized by pairwise independence. A diagram, based on p-values from the proposed test, is introduced to investigate serial dependence. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposal is evaluated in a simulation study and with an application on financial data. Both show that the new test, used in synergy with the existing ones, helps in the identification of the true data-generating process. Supplementary materials for this article are available online. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveys are used to infer the level of social integration of immigrants. Item response theory helps to describe the relationship among responses to test items and latent traits of interest. However, in the presence of nonignorable missing data, which are omitted responses depending on the latent traits to be measured, estimates of the model parameters are biased. To account for nonignorable missing data, the quantity and quality of contacts between immigrants and natives (so called “social integration”) are taken into account through a linear function of the response propensity. Higher education, no intention to migrate again, young age, Albanian nationality, and declaring a non-Muslim religion or none, comparatively favor social integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gaussian mixture models with eigen-decomposed covariance structures, i.e. the Gaussian parsimonious clustering models (GPCM), make up the most popular family of mixture models for clustering and classification. Although the GPCM family has been used for almost 20 years, selecting the best member of the family in a given situation remains a troublesome problem. Likelihood ratio (LR) tests are developed to tackle this problem; given a number of mixture components, these LR tests compare each member of the family to the heteroscedastic model under the alternative hypothesis. Along the way, a novel maximum likelihood estimation procedure is developed for two members of the GPCM family. Simulations show that thereference distribution provides a reasonable approximation for the LR statistics when the sample size is not too small and when the mixture components are separate enough; accordingly, in the remaining configurations, a parametric bootstrap approach is also discussed and evaluated. Furthermore, a closed testing procedure, having the defined LR tests as local tests, is considered to assess, in a straightforward way, a unique model in the general family. In contrast with the information criteria that are often employed in the literature as ‘black boxes’, it is only based on one subjective element, the significance level, whose meaning is clear to everyone. Simulation results are presented to investigate the performance of the procedure in situations with gradual departure from the homoscedastic model and its robustness with respect to elliptical departures from normality in each mixture component. Finally, the advantages of the procedure are illustrated via applications to some well-known data sets. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article enlarges the covariance configurations, on which the classical linear discriminant analysis is based, by considering the four models arising from the spectral decomposition when eigenvalues and/or eigenvectors matrices are allowed to vary or not between groups. As in the classical approach, the assessment of these configurations is accomplished via a test on the training set. The discrimination rule is then built upon the configuration provided by the test, considering or not the unlabeled data. Numerical experiments, on simulated and real data, have been performed to evaluate the gain of our proposal with respect to the linear discriminant analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

It is well known that non ignorable item non response may occur when the cause of the non response is the value of the latent variable of interest. In these cases, a refusal by a respondent to answer specific questions in a survey should be treated sometimes as a non ignorable item non response. The Rasch-Rasch model (RRM) is a new two-dimensional item response theory model for addressing non ignorable non response. This article demonstrates the use of the RRM on data from an Italian survey focused on assessment of healthcare workers’ knowledge about sudden infant death syndrome (that is, a context in which non response is presumed to be more likely among individuals with a low level of competence). We compare the performance of the RRM with other models within the Rasch model family that assume the unidimensionality of the latent trait. We conclude that this assumption should be considered unreliable for the data at hand, whereas the RRM provides a better fit of the data. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this article, we introduce a multiple testing procedure to assess a common covariance structure betweenkgroups. The new test allows for a choice among eight different patterns arising from the three-term eigen decomposition of the group covariances. It is based on the closed testing principle and adopts local likelihood ratio (LR) tests. The approach reveals richer information about the underlying data structure than classical methods, the most common one being only based on homo/heteroscedasticity. At the same time, it provides a more parsimonious parameterization, whenever the constrained model is suitable to describe the real data. The new inferential methodology is then applied to some well-known datasets chosen from the multivariate literature. Finally, simulation results are presented to investigate its performance in different situations representing gradual departures from homoscedasticity and to evaluate the reliability of using the asymptotic χ2to approximate the actual distribution of the local LR test statistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epidemiological studies have shown a higher incidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in men than women. Interestingly, there are clear gender differences in disease onset and progression in rodent models of familial ALS overexpressing mutated human superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1-G93A). In the present study we sought to determine whether the alterations of serum steroid levels by gonadectomy or chronic treatment of neuroprotective neurosteroids can modulate disease onset and progression in a rat model of ALS (SOD1-G93A transgenic rats). Presymptomatic SOD1-G93A rats were gonadectomized or treated with a neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) using silastic tubing implants. Disease onset and progression of the animals were determined by the routine analyses of locomotor testing using the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) score. Although sexual dimorphism was observed in intact and gonadectomized SOD1-G93A rats, there was no significant effect of gonadectomy on disease onset and progression. DHEA treatment did not alter disease progression or survival in SOD1-G93A rats. Our results indicate that gonadal steroids or neurosteroids are not one of the possible modulators for the occurrence or disease progression in a rat model of ALS. Further analysis will be necessary to understand how sexual dimorphism is involved in ALS disease progression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Gaussian hidden Markov model (HMM) is widely considered for the analysis of heterogenous continuous multivariate longitudinal data. To robustify this approach with respect to possible elliptical heavy-tailed departures from normality, due to the presence of outliers, spurious points, or noise (collectively referred to asbad pointsherein), the contaminated Gaussian HMM is here introduced. The contaminated Gaussian distribution represents an elliptical generalization of the Gaussian distribution and allows for automatic detection of bad points in the same natural way as observations are typically assigned to the latent states in the HMM context. Once the model is fitted, each observation has a posterior probability of belonging to a particular state and, inside each state, of being a bad point or not. In addition to the parameters of the classical Gaussian HMM, for each state we have two more parameters, both with a specific and useful interpretation: one controls the proportion of bad points and one specifies their degree of atypicality. A sufficient condition for the identifiability of the model is given, an expectation-conditional maximization algorithm is outlined for parameter estimation and various operational issues are discussed. Using a large-scale simulation study, but also an illustrative artificial dataset, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model in comparison with HMMs of different elliptical distributions, and we also evaluate the performance of some well-known information criteria in selecting the true number of latent states. The model is finally used to fit data on criminal activities in Italian provinces. Supplementary materials for this article are available online [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]