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The paper uses illustrations from rural India and Bangladesh to develop a critical analysis of practices and experiences of poverty often overlooked in development policies. It challenges the principle measurement, calculative rationality and static representation in anti-poverty interventions that present poverty as a 'problem' to be resolved. It draws on poststructuralist ideas to express poverty differently and shift from problem-solving to problematisation. Drawing on the concept of 'rhizome' it highlights the connectivity, heterogeneity and multiplicity of poverty. Examples from interviews and photo diaries illustrate manifold poverty as a combination of heterogeneous activities, objects and affects that complicate development ethics and challenge the logic of reason in existing policies. The paper explores improvisation, experimentation, hope and repetition as mechanisms for critically evaluating aquaculture-led development and attending to overlooked objects, uncertain outcomes and untold stories of disadvantage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies educational aspirations and grade achievements of teenagers in India, using Structural Equation Modelling with data from the Young Lives Study. The analysis differentiates direct effects of relevant socio-economic and individual characteristics on educational output from indirect effects through aspirations. In this sample, some student characteristics – parents' education, mothers' caste and the student's gender – have no direct effect on educational output, but an indirect effect on educational aspirations going through abilities. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds, and in particular girls, are at a disadvantage at age 12 because they have accumulated lower cognitive abilities. Abilities shape aspirations, which then impact educational output beyond the mere effect of abilities. Girls are at a double disadvantage: besides lower average skills at age 12, they developed lower aspirations than boys of the same characteristics. The economic situation of the household was neither directly nor indirectly related with students' achievements in school. These results help distinguish aspirations as drivers of behaviour from aspirations as correlates of other characteristics, and they have relevant policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on ethnography of one family's life with diabetes in a poor settlement in Delhi's suburbs, this paper examines the relationship between emotional structures of care and kinship in the face of chronic illness. While anthropologists have argued for a relational understanding of care and discussed how, in India, modernity and social transformations have resulted in crises of familial care, less attention has been paid to the emotional terrains of care and its difficulties as they unfold in concrete relationships over time. This paper demonstrates how emotional intensities define the possibilities, limits, and ambivalence of kin care for the chronically ill. Described as care without heart, this mode of attention implies a continuation of care labour that maintains kinship ties and holds the possibility of kin futures, but is disinvested emotionally and feels unsatisfactory. The analytic of care without heart expresses a particular mode of care by which persons navigate dominant moral regimes around gendered family responsibilities and imperatives of love in relationships, but without fully subscribing to them. Care without heart at once signifies an inadequate form of care, invokes North Indian normative moral regimes around family care responsibilities and emotions, and acknowledges the shortcomings of these regimes and norms of relatedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2018, Nuh, barely 75 km from India's parliament, was ranked by the Government as the country's most 'backward' district. It is a region fraught with many challenges including endemic poverty and simmering communal tensions, which among other factors have contributed to historically limiting women from pursuing higher education or building career aspirations. While the state has attempted to correct this by building new colleges, this paper explores how women experience and navigate these college spaces. Using a critical feminist lens, it seeks to understand the social and cultural possibilities that college life and higher education have in their lives. Findings suggest that while there are major restrictions on social agency within their everyday life, college emerges as a liminal space that provides an 'escape'. The college space for these women offers possible pathways of imagination, dialogue, solidarity and support, all forming the complex matrix of their future possibilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The analysis of household wealth dynamic remains an important methodology in the identification of poverty traps. To overcome measurement issues in survey data, livelihoods-based approaches of the dynamics of poverty are typically examined using panel regressions of a livelihoods regression on household assets and other socio-economic factors over time. In this paper, we characterise the livelihoods regression as a 'livelihoods technology', and use a latent class-technology approach to account for heterogeneity in how households generate a livelihood. We use a detailed dataset from rural India covering 213 households across 2001–2014, and control for selection issues through a Heckman Selection model. Our results are the first in the wealth dynamics literature to show that substantial heterogeneity exists in the technologies with which households generate their livelihoods. Importantly, we show that accounting for heterogeneity in household livelihoods 'technologies' more readily identifies different equilibria in wealth levels and provides previously foregone information on who is poor and why they remain poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the findings of a research study in Thane District, Maharashtra, India, on access to sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) for women and girls of Nomadic and Denotified Tribes (NT-DNT). NT-DNT communities face stigma and violence due to their historically criminalised status and nomadic lifestyle. Their precarious legal, social, and economic status has a negative impact on women's SRHR. Existing literature on this subject is sparse, and studies by researchers from within the community, which could bring about organic and community-led change, are almost non-existent. This study, carried out by a woman from a Nomadic Tribe, presents an insider's perspective on the experiences of and factors underlying the violation of the SRHR of girls and women of NT-DNT communities. The study used a human rights-based participatory methodology with qualitative methods including three focus group discussions with 21 women and 10 in-depth interviews with women and key informants from NT-DNT communities. The findings describe the gender, community, and health system barriers which hinder women's and girls' access to SRHR. Issues such as language barriers between the women and medical fraternity, criminalisation by the police, and extreme deprivation – more intense than faced by the general poor – are unique to women of these communities. The NT-DNT communities face extreme deprivation of basic resources such as identity documents, shelter, sanitation, education support, workplace safety, and transportation, which further deny women their sexual and reproductive rights. The paper aims to amplify these women's voices to advocate for better SRHR services for women and girls of NT-DNT communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper challenges (inter)national development narratives that propose schooling as a way out of poverty in the global South by interrogating poor children's experience of pedagogic and disciplinary processes in an Indian classroom. It also develops a theoretical framework to interrogate the relationship between urban poverty and classroom processes which attends to wider class and caste relations in the contemporary context of economic liberalism and 'political and social illiberalism'. Drawing upon parent interviews and ethnographic fieldnotes from a classroom in a state school it unpacks the term, 'labour class', used by teachers to refer to pupils' social background. Further, deploying the notion of 'deficit view' it shows how pedagogic practice, physical and verbal aggression experienced by pupils and pupils' struggles to engage with classroom teaching are shaped by realities of deeply stratified schooling, inadequate infrastructure in state schools and the relationship between 'labour class' communities and middle-class teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay critically examines the discourse of participation in development finance directed at the poor in the Global South from national and international development agencies. This discourse, often termed financial inclusion, posits the ability of development actors to reach the poor involving them in important economic decisions affecting their lives, provides access to products that improve their material conditions, and ensures their credit worthiness through highly nuanced information technology and social media tools. The paper presents evidence from two ethnographically inspired studies undertaken by the author in India and Kenya to ascertain the ways in which the participatory discourse in finance is understood among societal participants themselves. The paper presents relevant epistemes for analyzing what 'grassroots' actors understand as their participation in development-oriented financial inclusion projects. The study forwards two major conclusions: (1) 'habits of authority' among various development actors thwart effective participation; (2) technology platforms that allow for successive innovations and interconnections from businesses and other organizations encourage financial inclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present the results of a qualitative study by a non-profit organisation implementing a community-based urban adolescent development programme. The study highlights the sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) situation of marginalised young women in a developed state of India. Our findings, based on in-depth interviews with young women and frontline health providers, show that structural factors, such as economic and social stratifiers, gender norms and cultural beliefs, result in further marginalisation of young women. In turn, marginalisation adversely affects the realisation of SRHR through discriminatory practices around menstruation and lack of control in matters related to sexuality, contraception, pregnancy and safe abortion. Rights to the highest standards of sexual and reproductive health (SRH) care are compromised. Health system factors like providers' attitudes and knowledge, commodity supplies, and indifference to ensuring delivery of contraceptives and other services often result in unplanned pregnancies and affect the quality of young women's SRH care. Whatever information and support adolescents and young women get is from local community-based organisations. We conclude that structural determinants and violations of fundamental rights to education, equal opportunities and participation constitute a significant barrier to the enjoyment of SRHR by the marginalised young women in the study. Unless these are addressed, government policies and programmes to promote young people's SRHR will not benefit young women from disadvantaged communities. Partnership and complementarity between government programmes, adolescents and health rights civil society organisations are recommended to promote rights-based, equitable adolescent and youth-friendly services to this vulnerable population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internally displaced women are underserved by health schemes and policies, even as they may face greater risk of violence and unplanned pregnancies, among other burdens. There are an estimated 450,000 internally displaced persons in India, but they are not formally recognised as a group. Displacement has been a common feature in India's northeast region. This paper examines reproductive and maternal health (RMH) care-seeking among Bru displaced women in India. The study employed qualitative methodology: four focus group discussions (FGDs) were held with 49 displaced Bru women aged 18–45 between June and July 2018; three follow-up interviews with FGD participants and five in-depth interviews with community health workers (Accredited Social Health Activists – ASHAs) in camps for Bru displaced people in the Indian state of Tripura. All interviewees gave written or verbal informed consent; discussions were conducted in the local dialect, recorded, and transcribed. Data were indexed deductively from a dataset coded using grounded approaches. Most women were unaware of many of the RMH services provided by health facilities; very few accessed such care. ASHAs had helped increase institutional deliveries over the years. Women were aware of temporary contraceptive methods as well as medical abortion, but lacked awareness of the full range of contraceptive options. Challenges in accessing RMH services included distance of facilities from camps, and multiple costs (for transport, medicines, and informal payments to facility staff). The study highlighted a need for comprehensive intervention to improve RMH knowledge, attitudes, and practices among displaced women and to reduce access barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to major learning about the social and economic losses that an external shock to the system can cause. In this paper, we examine some sustainability issues focusing on three key focal points of sustainable development – economic growth, poverty and inequality in the context of climate change. We focus on the inter-relationship between economic growth, investment, labour force participation, energy consumption, poverty and inequality under alternative scenarios using the global framing of Shared Socio-Economic Pathways (SSPs). An econometric model is used for estimating the relationship between GDP and its determinants along with fitting a General Quadratic and/or Beta Lorenz curve using the World Bank's Povcal software for determining the relationship between income, poverty and inequality. Alternative GDP growth paths, redistribution assumptions and poverty lines are used for simulations which reveal the extent of sensitivity of the developmental targets to scenarios up to 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health financing equity analysis rarely goes below the state level in India. This paper assesses the equity and effectiveness of public spending on health in the state of Odisha. Using district-level public spending data for the first time, it sheds light on the incidence of public spending by geography and by type of services. There are three key findings. First, it identifies the weak link between district spending and district need, proxied by poverty rates or lagging sectoral outcomes, highlighting the potential for a more needs-based approach to public resource allocation. Second, the results indicate that at the household level health spending by the state is not pro-poor, especially in public hospitals, underscoring the need to improve access to care for the bottom 40% at these facilities. Third, an exhaustive analysis of micro-level treasury data brings into focus the importance of reforming public finance data systems to support evidence-based policy at the sub-state level. Significant district-wise variation in key health financing and equity indicators, combined with growing policy interest in the district level, underscore the utility of further empirical work in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether aspirations matter for education, which offers a common route out of poverty. We find that mother aspirations are strongly related to the child's grade achieved at age 18. The relation is nonlinear, suggesting there is a threshold, and depends on caste, household income and the village setting. The coefficients remain large and significant when applying control function estimation, using first born son as instrument. A similar strong relation is observed with learning outcomes, including local language, English and maths test results, and with attending school, but not with attending private education. These results are confirmed for outcomes at age 15. The findings provide direct evidence on the contribution of mother aspirations to children's education outcomes and point to aspirations as a channel of intergenerational mobility. They suggest that education outcomes can be improved more rapidly by taking aspirations into account when targeting education programmes, and through interventions that shape aspirations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper highlights the complex relationship between development and language and argues that poverty as a condition of underdevelopment is materialized in representation. Instead of limiting the scope of the topic to the rhetorical aspects of development thought, it is proposed that development language produces a specific reality of poverty while writing about it. Using a post-structuralist framework and drawing from various Planning Commission reports on poverty lines, the paper goes on to implicate these reports in the production of authoritative knowledge and the elision of the poor. Through the identification of the cut-off line, which distinguishes the poor from the non-poor, these reports control our ways of knowing and suspend our ability to imagine poverty in any non-institutional manner. Such representation not only omits poor’s everyday experience and converts poverty as experience to poverty as knowledge, but also predicates its objectivity on such elision. The paper also highlights the slippages and contradictions in these reports, and shows how in the seeming inevitability of poverty knowledge, people find innovative ways to appropriate and disrupt it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this first paper, we explain why traditional knowledge is an important theme in the study of Indian agriculture, especially given the crises routinely facing poor, smallholder farmers. We begin with an overview of some of the key authors who have written about the problems facing small farmers both within and outside India. Different authors have focused on different aspects of the benefits that can be derived from the local knowledge and skills of farmers, but these do not always pertain to organic farming. Our interest in organic farming is specifically about 'traditional' knowledge. With the industrialisation of agriculture in India and elsewhere, many poor, small farmers have been deskilled and placed into vulnerable positions. Traditional knowledge has been undermined, overwhelmed or has survived only in fragments. How 'traditional knowledge' might be retrieved, reinvented, reintroduced and modified so as to create a farmer-driven, sustainable and biodiverse agriculture is our concern. In the final section of this paper, we analyse the four situations we have been working on as examples of the possibilities and challenges facing the revival of 'traditional knowledge' in the villages of Kolkata, central India and Sikkim. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently, the only way for the population of developing countries to access the Internet was through expensive smartphones, designed in and for developed countries. In the past few years, however, a major new innovation has emerged, the smart feature phone with Internet connectivity, which was specifically designed for those with low incomes in developing countries. This paper explains the development process for the smart feature phone, how this has influenced the nature and extent of adoption, and its use by low-income groups, including their demonstrated preference for uses related to entertainment rather than more traditional "work-related" goals. The focus is on the case of India, where the JioPhone has already reached millions of people with low incomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers an evaluation of a supported women's self-help programme with over 1.5 million participants in one of the poorest rural regions of the world (Uttar Pradesh, India). Methodologically, it shows how indicators from the direct capability measurement literature can be adapted for programme evaluation in a low-income country setting. Unique data on capabilities across a range of dimensions are then developed for some 6000 women and used to estimate a number of propensity score matching models. The substantive empirical results of these models indicate that many of the capability indicators are higher for programme members, that the difference appears robust, and that there are significant benefits for those from scheduled tribes and lower castes. The discussion highlights two points. First, human development improvements offered by multi-strand programmes can help to explain the paradox as to why nearly 100 million women (in India alone) have participated in self-help programmes despite modest global research evidence for micro-finance impacts on nominal incomes. Second, results argue strongly for the use of capability measures over agency measures focused solely on household decision-making to assess women's empowerment when structural causes of disempowerment, external to the household, are present and significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From research in central Chhattisgarh, this paper interprets the bearing that healthcare beliefs and practices may have in shaping maternal and child nutrition both in the light of biomedical recommendations and within the context and constraints of a rural village setting. It contends that health beliefs and practices that are at variance from biomedical recommendations appear to have few consequences for gestational nutrition and for child health in relation to pregnancy. In the postpartum however, health ideas at variance from biomedical recommendations appear to have an important bearing on maternal nutrition and infant feeding, and may put mothers and children at risk of nutritional deficiency. Maternal 'eating down' following a surgical procedure such as a caesarean delivery or tubectomy is especially noteworthy, since food intake quantity is reduced over an extended time frame. While caring practices are influenced by cultural formulations, they also reflect, perhaps, adaptations to health risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among countries with comparable levels of income, India has one of the more progressive disability policy frameworks. However, people with disabilities in India are still subject to multiple disadvantages. This paper focuses on state-level variations in outcomes for people with disabilities to provide an explanation for the contrast between the liberal laws on paper and the challenges faced by people with disabilities in practice. Using average monthly per-capita expenditure as an indicator of economic well-being, instrumental-variable Wald estimator results indicate that households with members with disabilities have expenditures that are 14% lower compared with households with able members. This effect is most pronounced among families with male adults and children with disabilities, and in states that are relatively poor, relatively more urban, those that experience extremes in annual rainfall and temperature, and those that have low to medium levels of inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship of empowerment to women's self-reported general health status and women's self-reported health during pregnancy in low-income communities in Mumbai. The data on which this paper is based were collected in three study communities located in a marginalised area of Mumbai. We draw on two data sources: in-depth qualitative interviews conducted with 66 married women and a survey sample of 260 married women. Our analysis shows that empowerment functions differently in relation to women's reproductive status. Non-pregnant women with higher levels of empowerment experience greater general health problems, while pregnant women with higher levels of empowerment are less likely to experience pregnancy-related health problems. We explain this non-intuitive finding and suggest that a globally defined empowerment measure for women may be less useful that one that is contextually and situationally defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores assets for health and well-being for women in extremely poor rural areas in Ghana, Haiti, India, the Philippines, and Tanzania. Data were collected through individual interviews and focus group interviews with local women. The paper asks (i) which assets women draw on for well-being in resource-poor settings, and (ii) whether an assets approach, as understood in the Salutogenic Model, is appropriate and meaningful in the most deprived areas. Low levels of natural, material and infrastructural resources were reported by the respondents to cause stress, and assets of a human, social and cultural character were identified as being important in coping with this stress. By mobilizing the capacity and assets of people and places, local development initiatives will make sense logically (comprehensibility), they will be perceived to be practically realistic (manageability), and they will be motivating because they are meaningful, based on involvement in decision-making (meaningfulness). The assets focus must co-exist with initiatives to improve distributional justice. We conclude that an asset approach to well-being is not only appropriate, but also necessary, in even the poorest contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A key agenda of policy-makers in both the developing and the developed worlds is to have an inclusive growth. Financial services have been recognised as one of the fundamental services that have the potential to achieve this objective and help move towards a more just and equitable society. This paper attempts to assess the impact of three information and communication technology-driven initiatives in the field of financial services by differentiating them on the basis of service design. This study goes beyond the stated objective of these services and uses Sen’s capability perspective to study their impact across three non-economic outcome variables viz. literacy, service-specific well-being and empowerment. The data for the study are collected from the urban poor across different locations in a large metropolitan city in South India where the three different services are being offered. The study follows a quasi-experimental design (field study) and ensures matching of the treatment and control groups through propensity score matching. The matched data are analysed using an independent samplet-test. The result of the analysis shows that service design plays a key role in increasing service literacy, improving service-specific well-being and empowering end users. The study suggests that the true challenge for providers (government and partner agencies) of these services is in designing a service that ensures a balance of structure and flexibility without constraining the choice of end users through innovative service blueprints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to explore the linkage between poverty and inequality in malnutrition through decomposition analysis using data from the National Family Health Survey-3 (NFHS-3) conducted in 2005-2006. Association between inequality in malnutrition and income inequality and poverty is observed at the state level. Inequality is analysed using the concentration index, which is further decomposed to identify the factors associated with inequality in malnutrition. Poverty, in terms of the wealth index, has considerable impact on average rates of malnutrition, indicating a disproportional burden of malnutrition on the poor. At the macro-economic level, overall socio-economic inequality correlates moderately with the inequality in malnutrition. On decomposition, poverty alone explains more than half of the inequality in malnutrition, which justifies the poverty-nutrition inequality linkage. The paper highlights the influence of poverty in worsening malnutrition, leading to unequal nutritional outcomes among children in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on disability issues in countries of the South is primarily dominated by a focus on generating large scale quantitative data sets. This paper discusses the many challenges, opportunities and dilemmas faced in designing and undertaking a qualitative research study in one district in India. The Disability, Education and Poverty Project (DEPP) aims at exploring the role of education in the lives of young people with disabilities living in poverty. A central focus of the research is to engage with the young people with disabilities themselves and to understand how they construed their lives and experiences. This paper discusses three issues which are of central concern to the project: identification of the sample group, appropriateness of the research methods and, finally, an examination of the assumptions underpinning the research process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article has two objectives. First, it interrogates the normative understanding of the identification of poor people as a technical process confined to the domain of experts. The paper analyses the construction of Below Poverty Line (bpl) status in India, and provides evidence for how this is contested at multiple levels of the policy process, through both formal and informal policy practices. Second, the paper uses a case study of a major anti-poverty policy, the Suvarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, to demonstrate how the cumulative outcome of formal and informal policy practices is the erosion of the redistributive intent of policy. The paper emphasises the importance of foregrounding within policy discourse the politically contested nature of the processes of identifying poor people, and of determining their eligibility for anti-poverty policy resources. The typology of policy practices generated calls for deeper recognition of the significant influence of informal policy practices on the policy process in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last few years Mumbai -- India's financial and commercial capital - has been affected by adverse climatic events leading to flooding and landslides resulting in high loss of lives and property. While different sections of the population were affected, the poor and the socially marginalized -- living in environmentally risk prone areas -- were more affected than others. In view of the dearth of comprehensive studies linking social vulnerability and environmental risks in Mumbai, this paper attempts to throw some light on this relationship with a specific focus on populations living and working close to the Mithi river which flows through parts of the city. Flooding of the Mithi river has been a major reason for death and destruction in the city during major flooding events in recent years. Contrary to popular views blaming the government, the local municipal corporation and encroachments for enhanced environmental hazards in Mumbai, the paper brings out a more complicated picture of the links between poverty, power distribution in society, discrimination, and environmental changes and shifts that have led to the current crisis. In doing so the article engages with some classical sociological perspectives on risk developed by Mary Douglas and Ulrich Beck, and critiques their applicability, especially in non-western contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines whether the recent growth in 'low-fee private' (LFP) schools is able to promote Education for All by being accessible to the poor. Based primarily on a 13-village survey of 250 households and visits to 26 private and government schools in rural Uttar Pradesh, India, this paper explores who 'chooses' private schooling, in the light of the well-documented failure of the government school system. In particular, the paper explores the issue of whether private provision is affordable and accessible to poor rural parents. It finds that LFP school costs are unaffordable for over half of the sampled children, including the majority of low caste and Muslim families. It also finds that while LFPs are greatly preferred under current conditions, what parents actually want is a well-functioning government school system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to verify the hypothesis that the set of food insecure is larger than the set of poor in India. Any attempt to reform safety nets like a food distribution programme by targeting it only to the latter would penalize those who are non-poor but food insecure. Towards this end, the paper attempts to: exemplify the issue with reference to measures and criteria for identifying the poor and food insecure; to estimate the incidence of poverty and food insecurity at the national and state levels; and to examine how far their magnitudes tally across states. This limited exercise shows that aggregate estimates of poverty and food insecurity broadly tally at the national level and for several states. The targeted public distribution system covers the majority of the food insecure who are poor, but excludes those sections/regions whose consumption patterns have changed by choice. This calls not for any income transfer but, if at all, for nutrition education programmes to influence consumer choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper suggests that there are many contrary pulls, some old, and others new, operating on socioeconomic development in the South Asian region. It argues that September 11th, 2001 has been a defining and defiling moment for the region, since the consequences of the terrorist attacks on the US will weaken democracy in the subcontinent. Consequently, the region will lose its historical advantage of not being militarised by outside poles, or interests, and this will undermine democratic mechanisms that facilitate alleviation of poverty and inequality. This paper investigates the disjunction between mainstream and grassroots perceptions of India's poverty, arguing that localised democratic government, attention to the institutional architecture of countries, and enabling participation of the poor and the discriminated offer the only way to deal with economic and social inequality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

HIV infection poses a serious threat to the economy of a household. Out of pocket (OOP) health spending can be prohibitive and can drag households below poverty level. Based on the data collected from a cross-sectional survey of 401 households with HIV+ members in Pune city, India, this paper examines the consumption levels and patterns among households, and comments on the economic impoverishment resulting from OOP medical spending. Analysis reveals that households with HIV members spend a major portion of their monthly consumption expenditure on food items. Medical expenditure constitutes a large portion of their total consumption spending. Expenditure on children's education constitutes a minor proportion of total monthly spending. A high proportion of medical expenditure has a bearing on the economic condition of households with HIV members. Poverty increases by 20% among the studied HIV households when OOP health spending is adjusted. It increases 18% among male-headed households and 26% among female-headed households. The results reiterate the need of greater support from the government in terms of accessibility and affordability of health care to save households with HIV members from economic catastrophe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews the impact and effectiveness in implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) at state level as well as at village level with focus on inclusiveness, rural labor markets and agriculture. The paper finds that some states are more effective in implementation then others. The states which effectively integrated MGNREGA works with local planning gained much in terms of employment generation and asset creation leading to increased agricultural potential. The scheme is more inclusive of vulnerable sections of the society including scheduled castes and tribes and also women. Study also highlight the village level differences in implementation and effective implementation leads to reduction of hunger and poverty. More importantly the scheme increased bargaining power of rural laborer in agricultural sector, resulted in higher wage rates, better work environment and less exploitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 5 is focused on reducing maternal mortality and achieving universal access to reproductive health care. India has made extensive efforts to achieve MDG 5 and in some regions much progress has been achieved. Progress has been uneven and inequitable however, and many women still lack access to maternal and reproductive health care. Objective: In this review, a framework developed by the Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH) is used to categorize and explain determinants of inequity in maternal and reproductive health in India. Design: A review of peer-reviewed, published literature was conducted using the electronic databases PubMed and Popline. The search was performed using a carefully developed list of search terms designed to capture published papers from India on: 1) maternal and reproductive health, and 2) equity, including disadvantaged populations. A matrix was developed to sort the relevant information, which was extracted and categorized based on the CSDH framework. In this way, the main sources of inequity in maternal and reproductive health in India and their inter-relationships were determined. Results: Five main structural determinants emerged from the analysis as important in understanding equity in India: economic status, gender, education, social status (registered caste or tribe), and age (adolescents). These five determinants were found to be closely interrelated, a feature which was reflected in the literature. Conclusion: In India, economic status, gender, and social status are all closely interrelated when influencing use of and access to maternal and reproductive health care. Appropriate attention should be given to how these social determinants interplay in generating and sustaining inequity when designing policies and programs to reach equitable progress toward improved maternal and reproductive health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exiting impact analysis studies on the Self Help Group-Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP) of the National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) underline that the programme has done extremely well in rural India in terms of its outreach, generating income, reducing poverty levels and empowering people both economically and socially. This paper evaluates the impact of SBLP on Self Help Group (SHG) members at the household level from a gender perspective. The analysis of the study is based on a large sample of primary data covering 4791 SHG households and 900 SHGs collected from six states in India. Furthermore, the sample covers more than 60% of SHGs that consist of members belonging to below poverty line families. Overall, the performance analysis reveals that households whose member(s) belong to all-female SHGs perform better than households whose members belong to other types of SHGs. This is mainly because female SHGs are doing extremely well in terms of recovery of loans and per capita income and savings. A chunk of female SHG members in all the six sample states reported an improvement of their social empowerment after joining the SHG programme. Furthermore, the fall of poverty is more pronounced in cases of households whose members belong to female SHGs at 26.0 percentage points between pre-SHG period and post-SHG period. The policy implication is that the formation of female SHGs needs to be encouraged and all necessary services should be provided to them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India's food security is heavily dependent on irrigation, yet large rural areas of irrigated land are threatened by increasing salinity and decreasing ground water resources. Therefore, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation agreed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 gives importance to sustainable rural development in developing countries. The plan mandates socio-economic development within the carrying capacity of local ecosystems. One way to increase food productivity is to encourage agriculture-based vegetable cultivation often practiced by women farmers. This paper presents data on the role of tribal women-led organic vegetable farming, which improves the livelihoods of women while enhancing environmental sustainability across India's drylands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The struggle for reproductive self-determination has specific significance for women and girls in India, where a maternal death occurs every five minutes. This paper analyses the role litigation played in seeking redress for violations of the reproductive rights of Shanti Devi, who died in childbirth in 2010 in Haryana state, and some of the socio-economic, cultural, political and legal factors involved. It provides a brief overview of India's national and international obligations with regard to maternal health, and through the lens of the litigation in Shanti Devi's case, it examines how the government failed to protect, respect and fulfill her right to life and health. Litigation can be used to ensure accountability in further cases by building on case law, informing communities about these decisions and their rights, and holding government accountable at local, state and central level. Litigation also has limits, most importantly due to people's lack of awareness of their rights and entitlements, the lack of government outreach programmes informing them of these, and the lack of accountability mechanisms within health programmes when they are not transparent or functioning effectively. Thus, although constitutional justice is an important tool for democratic progress and social change, social justice will only be achieved through broader social struggle. La lutte pour l'autodétermination génésique revêt une importance particulière pour les femmes et les filles en Inde, où un décès maternel se produit toutes les cinq minutes. Cet article analyse le rôle joué par le procès intenté pour demander réparation des violations des droits génésiques de Shanti Devi, morte en couches en 2010 dans l'État d'Haryana, et certains facteurs socio-économiques, culturels, politiques et juridiques en jeu. Il décrit brièvement les obligations nationales et internationales de l'Inde dans le domaine de la santé maternelle, et s'agissant de l'affaire Shanti Devi, il examine comment les autorités ont été incapables de protéger, de respecter et de réaliser le droit à la vie et à la santé de cette femme. Les poursuites peuvent permettre de garantir la responsabilisation dans de nouveaux cas en se fondant sur la jurisprudence, d'informer les communautés de ces décisions et de leurs droits, et de demander des comptes aux autorités locales, étatiques et centrales. L'action en justice a aussi ses limites, en particulier du fait de la méconnaissance de ses droits par la population, de l'absence de programmes officiels de vulgarisation qui informent la population de ces droits et du manque de mécanismes de responsabilisation dans les programmes de santé, quand ils ne sont pas transparents ou ne fonctionnent pas efficacement. Par conséquent, si la justice constitutionnelle est un outil important pour le progrès démocratique et le changement social, seule une lutte sociale élargie apportera la justice sociale. La lucha por la autodeterminación reproductiva tiene un significado específico para las mujeres y niñas en India, donde ocurre una muerte materna cada cinco minutos. En este artículo se analiza el rol que desempeñó el litigio para buscar reparo por violaciones de los derechos reproductivos de Shanti Devi, quien falleció en el parto, en el 2010, en el estado de Haryana, así como algunos de los factores socioeconómicos, culturales, políticos y jurídicos implicados. Se expone un resumen conciso de las obligaciones nacionales e internacionales de la India con respecto a la salud materna, y a través de la lente del litigio en el caso de Shanti Devi, se examina el incumplimiento del gobierno en proteger, respetar y realizar su derecho a la vida y la salud. El litigio se puede utilizar para garantizar responsabilidad en otros casos basándose en jurisprudencia, para informar a las comunidades sobre estas decisiones y sus derechos, y para hacer al gobierno responsable a nivel local, estatal y central. Pero el litigio tiene límites, principalmente debido a que las personas no son conscientes de sus derechos, a la falta de programas gubernamentales de extensión a las comunidades para informarlas de estos derechos, y a la falta de mecanismos de responsabilidad en los programas de salud, cuando no son transparentes o no funcionan eficazmente. Por lo tanto, aunque la justicia constitucional es una herramienta importante para los avances democráticos y el cambio social, la justicia social se alcanzará solo por medio de la lucha social. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Government social protection schemes and conventional microfinance interventions have struggled to reach the poorest and help them escape the confines of extreme poverty. In response, BRAC in Bangladesh experimented with an innovative approach that combined livelihood creation, financial services, and social safety nets in order to 'graduate' participants out of extreme poverty and toward a sustainable livelihood. Inspired by BRAC's success, CGAP and the Ford Foundation launched an initiative to test and adapt BRAC's approach in a variety of countries and contexts through their Graduation Programme. This paper focuses on the Graduation Programme implementation in West Bengal, India. By using a qualitative life history approach, we found that prior to joining the programme, participants had different 'idiosyncratic resources and risks' that defined their starting points. Programme performance among participants was largely based on a combination of these starting points, programme functioning, and the use of personal agency. Where the programmes were implemented as designed, they succeeded in strengthening participants' individual and household resources, and access to social networks, and expanding certain spheres of influence. However, some constraints were too deeply established to influence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is based on a three-year research project entitled Minority Women Negotiating Citizenship.1 Conceived of in the aftermath of Gujarat 2002, the project studied 75 life-history narratives of Muslim women survivors of communal violence in Gujarat, Hyderabad and Mumbai, in order to map their everyday experiences of negotiating survival, marginalisation and exclusion. While analysing our material we found that our preliminary organising or analytic categories - victim, agent, Muslim, woman, class, location - could not contain the negotiations and fluid 'subjects' of the narratives. The most useful analytic concepts and tools were those being used by the women themselves in their narratives, such as bahar nikalna and sambhalna. These women negotiate a hostile state, poverty, violence, communalised politics and public spaces, and increasingly belligerent community structures on an everyday basis. The complexity of 'identity' and 'agency' as they emerge in the narratives, and the syncretic nature of their everyday negotiations, challenge the rigidity of existing frameworks and dominant discourses on issues of Muslim identity and citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents findings on hysterectomy prevalence from a 2010 cross-sectional household survey of 2,214 rural and 1,641 urban, insured and uninsured women in low-income households in Ahmedabad city and district in Gujarat, India. The study investigated why hysterectomy was a leading reason for use of health insurance by women insured by SEWA, a women's organisation that operates a community-based health insurance scheme. Of insured women, 9.8% of rural women and 5.3% of urban women had had a hysterectomy, compared to 7.2% and 4.0%, respectively, of uninsured women. Approximately one-third of all hysterectomies were in women younger than 35 years of age. Rural women used the private sector more often for hysterectomy, while urban use was almost evenly split between the public and private sectors. SEWA's community health workers suggested that such young women underwent hysterectomies due to difficulties with menstruation and a range of gynaecological morbidities. The extent of these and of unnecessary hysterectomy, as well as providers' attitudes, require further investigation. We recommend the provision of information on hysterectomy as part of community health education for women, and better provision of basic gynaecological care as areas for advocacy and action by SEWA and the public health community in India. L'article présente les conclusions d'une enquête transversale sur la prévalence de l'hystérectomie auprès de femmes (2214 rurales et 1641 urbaines) assurées et non assurées dans des ménages à faible revenu de la ville et du district d'Ahmedabad à Gujarat, Inde. L'étude souhaitait déterminer pourquoi l'hystérectomie était une raison majeure de recours à l'assurance maladie de la part des femmes assurées chez SEWA, une organisation féminine qui gère un plan communautaire d'assurance maladie. Parmi les assurées, 9,8% des femmes rurales et 5,3% des femmes urbaines avaient subi une hystérectomie, contre 7,2% et 4,0% respectivement des femmes non assurées. Environ un tiers des hystérectomies avait été réalisées chez des femmes de moins de 35 ans. Les femmes rurales utilisaient plus souvent le secteur privé pour l'hystérectomie, alors qu'en ville, l'utilisation était répartie de manière égale entre les secteur public et privé. Les agents de santé communautaire de SEWA ont suggéré que ces jeunes femmes avaient subi une hystérectomie pour des troubles de la menstruation et différentes morbidités gynécologiques. Il convient de réaliser des recherches complémentaires sur l'étendue de ces interventions et des hystérectomies inutiles, ainsi que sur les attitudes des prestataires. Nous recommandons la diffusion d'informations sur l'hystérectomie dans le cadre de l'éducation sanitaire communautaire des femmes, et de meilleurs soins gynécologiques essentiels comme domaines de plaidoyer et d'action de SEWA et de la communauté de santé publique en Inde. En este artículo se presentan los hallazgos sobre la prevalencia de la histerectomía de una encuesta domiciliaria transversal, realizada en 2010, de 2214 mujeres rurales y 1641 urbanas aseguradas y no aseguradas, en viviendas de bajos ingresos en la ciudad y el distrito de Ahmedabad, en Gujarat, India. El estudio investigó por qué la histerectomía era una razón principal para el uso de seguro médico por mujeres aseguradas por SEWA, una organización de mujeres que administra un plan de seguro médico comunitario. De las mujeres aseguradas, el 9.8% de las mujeres rurales y el 5.3% de las urbanas habían tenido una histerectomía, comparado con el 7.2% y el 4.0%, respectivamente, de las mujeres no aseguradas. Aproximadamente una tercera parte de todas las histerectomías se efectuaron en mujeres menores de 35 años de edad. Las mujeres rurales acudieron al sector privado con más frecuencia para una histerectomía, mientras que las urbanas se dividieron casi exactamente por la mitad entre los sectores público y privado. Los trabajadores comunitarios de la salud empleados por SEWA sugirieron que estas jóvenes tuvieron histerectomías debido a sus dificultades con la menstruación y una variedad de morbilidades ginecológicas. La gravedad de éstas y la frecuencia de histerectomías innecesarias, así como las actitudes del personal de salud, requieren más investigación. Recomendamos el suministro de información sobre la histerectomía como parte de la educación de las mujeres comunitarias sobre la salud, y mejor prestación de los servicios ginecológicos básicos, como áreas de promoción y defensa y acción por parte de SEWA y la comunidad de salud pública en India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Debates on the global economic recession have failed to draw adequate attention to the meaning of the crisis for the poor and their education, especially in later developing societies. In this paper, I focus on the education of children of the poor in India - a country that has experienced economic slowdown rather than recession. Available research suggests that the economic slowdown is likely to have resulted in large numbers of informal sector workers slipping into poverty, adversely affecting the education of their children. However, I argue that poverty and the education of the poor has to be looked at in a context much broader than the global recession or the national economic slowdown. I refer in particular to the neoliberal discourse advocating low-cost private schools as solutions to the education of poor children, a discourse that preceded the meltdown. I argue that while publicly funded schooling in India is certainly in need of an overhaul, the private school agenda is driven by markets and profits and a reduced role of the state in education. There are serious implications that follow that must be urgently addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two or three centuries ago most of mankind was still very poor. When the West outgrew mass poverty, India was a British colony and suffered from stagnation. When East Asian economies exploited the advantages of backwardness and benefited from export-led growth, India remained inward-looking and poor. The 'Hindu rate of growth' preserved mass poverty. Since the reforms of the early 1990s India has exploited the advantages of backwardness and some global markets. In this article, the roots of India's failure to grow rapidly before the end of the twentieth century are analyzed. Stagnation is blamed on restrictions of economic freedom, whereas growth is explained by the expansion of economic freedom. Before the mid-twentieth century, the caste system and the legacy of sultanism curtailed economic freedom and contributed to economic stagnation. Thereafter, democratic socialism distorted incentives and generated 'permit-license-quota raj' or a rent-seeking society. When some obstacles to growth were dismantled, vigorous growth followed. Although expanding economic freedom remains limited. India's growth potential is not yet fully exploited. Indian infrastructure and human capital formation remain inadequate, regulations intrusive, and the budget in deficit. The rule of law looks better on paper than from the ground. Compared to China Indian public policy still has a lot of room for improvements. 'Maoists' or Naxalites threaten political stability and economic freedom. Geopolitics may explain India's late, slow and incomplete reforms. The rise of Asia, in particular of China and India, generates geopolitical challenges of its own. Conceivably, the global expansion of economic freedom permits not only the rise of Asia, but the peaceful management of the coming power transition between Asia and the West. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Degradation by human impact, poverty and limited ecological knowledge pose challenges for aquatic macrophyte restoration in India. The present paper proposes a framework for restoration of aquatic macrophytes in both freshwater and wastewater lentic ecosystems. The framework includes both ecological and economic aspects of aquatic macrophytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the trends and changes in medical assistance at birth among poor and non-poor mothers in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It also investigates the relative role of public and private health care providers, and social and economic correlates on the non-use of natal care, as well as reasons for this non-use. Data from three rounds of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) conducted over the period 1992-2006 were used. The wealth indices are estimated separately for rural and urban areas, and state-specific poverty line cut-off points are used to demarcate the poor and non-poor. Results show that birth assistance by skilled health professionals remained at an abysmal level, particularly for the poor. There had been no significant increase in the use of natal care among poor mothers during the period 1992-2006. Moreover, the increase in birth assistance by medical professionals came largely from private health care providers, and the use of natal care from public health centres had stagnated over the years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we compare and contrast the view on poverty of lay people, who are affected by the policies, with that of academics and policy-makers. Drawing from fieldwork in a village in Kerala, India, and applying the 'participatory numbers' approach, we devise a 'local method' to identify poor households, based on the villagers' poverty criteria. The local method is then compared with the official methods used by the national and the state governments. Based on the results, we argue for the need to take into account local dimensions of poverty, in addition to objective/universal dimensions, in the design of poverty reduction programmes. Our findings also suggest that effective risk-mitigation strategies must be devised to help poor households cope with shocks and stresses as well as to prevent the vulnerable non-poor from falling into poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Only 40.7% women in India deliver in an institution; leaving many vulnerable to maternal morbidity and mortality (India has 22% of global maternal deaths). While limited accessibility to functioning institutions may account in part, a common reason why women deliver at home is poverty. A lack of readily available financial resources for families to draw upon at the time of labor to transport the mother to an institution, is often observed. This paper reports a yearlong collaborative intervention (between the University and Department of Health) to study if providing readily available and easily accessible funds for emergency transportation would reduce maternal deaths in a rural, low income, and high maternal mortality setting in central India. It aimed to obviate a deterrent to emergency obstetric care; the nonavailability of resources with mothers when most needed. Issues in implementation are also discussed. Methods: Maternal deaths were actively identified in block Amarpatan (0.2 million population) over a 2-year period. The project, with participation from local government and other groups, trained 482 local health care providers (public and private) to provide antenatal care. Emergency transport money (in cash) was placed with one provider in each village. Maternal mortality in the adjacent block (Maihar) was followed (as a 'control' block). Results: Maternal deaths in Amarpatan decreased during the project year relative to the previous year, or in the control block the same year. Discussion and conclusions: Issues in implementation of the cash incentive scheme are discussed. Although the intervention reduced maternal deaths in this low-income setting, chronic poverty and malnutrition are underlying structural problems that need to be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper interrogates the terms 'developmental nationalism' and 'cultural nationalism' to conclude that, because developmental nationalisms always have cultural elements and cultural nationalisms, developmental ones, the precise, and varied, meanings of 'development' and 'culture' demand careful scrutiny, as do the shifting proportions of their combinations in different ideological - political formations and in the confrontations and partial accommodations between, and across, diverse nationalist traditions. The central argument is that we might get a better purchase on the developmental/cultural nationalism transition in the Indian case in juxtaposition with the problematic of poverty. Indian intellectuals turning towards self-conscious nationalism often placed the poverty of the country at the heart of their nationalism, making it basically a critique and the nation still in need of 'making' or constitution. The alternative has been to project the nation (or, with votaries of 'communal' politics - religious communities, Hindu or Muslim) as in every case an always already established glorious entity, with a resplendent history and culture, free of blemishes other than those imposed by external invasion or domination. Through four sets of case studies of these opposing traditions at four moments in the history of modern India, the focus here is on degrees of fetishisation of the nation, and their consequences in terms of the strengthening, or subversion, of hierarchies and power relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A few recent studies have shown that poverty is an exacerbating and often determining factor in the incidence of disabling conditions, including visual impairment. Recent estimates from the World Health Organization indicate that 90 per cent of all those affected by visual impairment live in the poorest countries of the world. India is home to one-fifth of the world's visually impaired people and therefore, any strategies to combat avoidable blindness must take into account the socio-economic conditions within which people live. This paper looks at the relationship between poverty and blindness in India and suggests strategies to address blindness prevention in a comprehensive manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In rural and low-income urban households, energy is 'women's business': women are responsible for providing energy, and use it for domestic chores and productive activities. However, the poor quality fuels many women use contribute to their time poverty, ill health, and level of drudgery. Despite these negative impacts, energy policy remains gender-blind. This can be attributed to the invisibility of women's needs to energy planners, stemming from a lack of appropriate gender-analysis tools to meet the particular data requirements of the energy sector. This article analyses why standard gender tools do not provide appropriate gender-disaggregated energy data, and describes a set of tools that have been developed for that purpose. The paper concludes with an evaluation of recent experiences testing the tools in Pakistan, India, and Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been renewed interest during recent times in the impact of irrigation development on rural poverty. For long, researchers asked whether irrigation development reduces the poverty of irrigators. However, the question being asked now is: does investing in irrigation — rather than in other public works — help reduce rural poverty in a region? Using Government of Gujarat's 1997 census of Below Poverty Line (BPL) households as well as the Village Amenity Survey of the same year, this paper explores the interplay between irrigation development and rural poverty in 177 predominantly rural talukas, which is an administrative unit with a population of around 100,000-150,000 people, of Gujarat state in western India. Our analysis shows that for the design of poverty-targeting programs, two variables have the highest appeal: primary education infrastructure and improved land productivity through irrigation. It also suggests that, over the long run, irrigation benefits far transcend the command areas of irrigation systems. As a result, irrigation impact studies focused at farm or command area level seriously underestimate overall livelihood impacts of irrigation development. This is because intensively irrigated areas act as magnets that attract rural poverty from their surround, especially from other dry areas. Population pressure on farm lands thus tends to get redistributed according to the carrying capacity of farm lands. Across 177 predominantly rural talukas of Gujarat, we find: a) an inverse relationship between land use intensity and land-man ratio; and b) as land productivity (output/hectare of net sown area) declines, output per rural person declines too, but far more slowly than would have been the case without the "magnet effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the vulnerability of rural households to poverty when a negative crop shock occurs. The analysis is based on the ICRISAT panel survey of households in a semi-arid region in south India during 1975-84. Using a dynamic panel data model that takes into account effects of crop shocks, an assessment of vulnerability of different groups of households is carried out. What is somewhat surprising is that even sections of relatively affluent households are highly vulnerable to long spells of poverty when severe crop shocks occur. As such crop shocks are frequent in a harsh production environment, there must be a shift of emphasis in anti-poverty measures from meeting income shortfalls among the poor to enabling the vulnerable to protect themselves better against these shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One important area of development that needs urgent attention in developing countries is poverty alleviation. Urban poverty in India, as in some other countries, is a spillover of rural poverty and about 65% of the labour force is still working in the agricultural sector. To that extent, this paper, though it does not provide a numerical magnitude of poverty per se, advocates policies directly targeting the agricultural sector to reduce poverty. The policy conclusion is that promoting investment and technological progress, along with efficient use of technology in agriculture, are central to reducing poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]