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This paper involves focus group research with adolescent women from coeducational and single sex independent schools. First, it discusses research that finds girls who attend single sex institutions to be at a distinct advantage with respect to gender issues and academics. In order to obtain a better understanding of these differences, a study is described that investigated the reasons why parents and their children choose single sex over coeducational environments. Next, it reviews research demonstrating that all female environments tend to promote adherence to particularly confusing gender role concerns. A brief discussion is included on literature typing body image and eating disturbances to a sense of gender ambivalence resulting from increased exposure to conflicting gender role prescriptions. Focus group data are analyzed and discussed in the context of the literature reviewed. The paper does not attempt to determine if single sex education is superior or inferior for adolescent girls; rather, the work is exploratory in nature and seeks to expose some of the gendered dynamics occurring within various educational contexts. (Contains 47 references.) (Author/JDM)

This paper reviews the findings reported by Dyer and Tiggemann (1996) in Australia studying the effect of single sex versus coeducational school environments on body concerns in adolescent females. It details the reasons why parents and their children choose to be educated in single sex versus coeducational environments; and reviews literature revealing that single sex education tends to promote adherence to particularly confusing gender role attitudes. The paper then describes the connection between disordered eating and a sense of gender ambivalence resulting from increased exposure to conflicting gender role prescriptions. Based on the argument developed, it is predicted that girls attending single sex schools will exhibit greater body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology than their counterparts. The hypothesis is tested and supported in a re-analysis of the data. The paper concludes with a discussion of the counterintuitive nature of these findings and future implications of the research. (Contains 47 references and 3 tables.) (Author/JDM)

This paper examines the culturization of body image and the impact of body image on women and men, noting that the strict definition of body size has made many women and men dissatisfied with their bodies. The first section defines body image and culturization, explaining how the current media images put tremendous pressure on men and women that was less present throughout history. The second section examines historical changes in body image, noting that historically, the standard for beauty in women and men has varied significantly. The third section discusses the importance of a good body image and how it relates to overall self-esteem and self-confidence. The fourth section focuses on body image distortion, explaining that a distorted body image means that the individual perceives him or herself to weigh more or be larger than actual measurements. The fifth section presents practical implications, in the form of questions and answers, related to losing weight, self-esteem, dieting, fat consumption, reasons to measure weight or percent fat, and improving body image. (Contains 29 references.) (SM)

This paper examines specific pedagogical themes, findings, and implications for dance education. The focus is on the topic of educating the student body in dance. The paper draws on a preliminary introduction and analysis from a previous study and accompanying course which pointed out a common dominant focus in dance education (an externalized view of the body). That view tends to objectify the dancer's body and requires students to strive to achieve a specific look while being corrected so that the students perform proper dance technique. The term somatic authority as used in the paper is defined as a focus on and affirmation of what the body looks like or how it should behave. The dance education students in the study often defined somatic authority as a sense of personal engagement in the learning process and an ownership of the body. The paper also discusses the reflexive analysis of participant responses that were sometimes in conflict with the assumptions and ideas of the study. It concludes with a consideration of agency and other implications for dance education. (Contains 15 references.) (SM)

This paper describes and discusses the interactive movement forum and the process of working on it as data itself. The paper revisits the theme of the creative process from a postmodern perspective, particularly considering creativity in relationship to women's bodies and detailing the problematic aspects of working with students in an artistic pursuit within a pedagogical context. In the study described in this paper, somatic practice was used as a tool to investigate the body perceptions and experiences of undergraduate dance-education majors. Five female students took part in a somatics/creativity project within a university-level instructional setting at a state university in the south. The students kept journals and wrote body stories based on their previous experiences in dance and what they were learning during the project. The paper details and analyzes what happened during the course and illustrates with students' statements. It concludes that the body could be a source for creative exploration in this pedagogical context--as a tool for feminist work and change. (Contains 12 references.) (SM)

Until recently, understanding about women's health has been traditionally mediated by the medical model, which tends to regard each health problem in a vacuum. Such an approach ignored important considerations, such as body image. In an effort to explore this health factor, a review of the literature regarding women's health and its relation to body image is presented here. The paper examines the concept of women's body image, including the obsession with thinness, the beauty myth, media impact, the commodification and objectification of women, pornography, the rape myth, women's self-worth, and multicultural differences in body image. The desire to be thin is rampant in U.S. society and the next section examines eating disorders and body image. Some of the issues covered include: the epidemiology and etiology of eating disorders and their pervasiveness on college campuses. Sexual violence is also a growing problem and some of the factors associated with this statistic, such as the rape trauma syndrome and coping with sexual violence, are discussed. Another contextual problem connected to body image is substance abuse, particularly the abuse of alcohol, as well as depression, anxiety, and sexuality. Some practice implications for counselors in how to address these various issues are outlined. (RJM)

This paper offers principles of mobility education for students with visual impairments, stressing that mobility training is a shared responsibility among teachers, parents, and the mobility specialist. It notes that the basis for mobility education is independent travel as a reachable goal, that the purposes include providing the child with a meaningful understanding of his environment and increasing self-confidence, and that advanced mobility education must be integrated with vocational education activities. A mobility program of six interdependent areas is described: (1) body image training, (2) sensory training, (3) indoor orientation and travel skill building, (4) outdoor mobility concept development and cane techniques, (5) outdoor mobility in the school and home neighborhoods, and (6) outdoor mobility in small business areas and public transportation. Eighteen specific suggestions for parents and school personnel to build mobility skills are offered. (DB)

The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with young adults' concerns about age related changes in body image and their anticipated impact on psychosocial functioning. One hundred and sixty-seven college students completed the Body Image and Aging Survey, designed to assess age related issues in body image, the Peer Dieting Survey, the Bulimia and Drive for Thinness subscales of the Eating Disorders Inventory II (EDI II), and the Zung Self Rating Depression Inventory. Results indicated significant correlations between the EDI II Bulimia subscale and the perception of future psychosocial functioning, as well as the consideration of surgical and non-surgical procedures to hide the physical signs of aging. Compared to males, females viewed a number of coping strategies as potentially more effective in dealing with changes in appearance, but also believed that age related changes in appearance would be more important in determining body satisfaction. Females were also more likely to consider cosmetic surgery, anti-aging strategies, and natural strategies to resist age related appearance changes. These findings suggest that while both genders have negative expectations about the effects of age related changes in appearance, females perceive aging as having a greater impact on overall attractiveness. (Contains 12 references.) (Author/JDM)

Most research on school effectiveness has focused solely on academic outcomes among pupils. In standardized educational systems, academic outcomes tend to be measured in terms of examination results. In other systems, outcomes are measured in terms of standardized ability test scores. Studies that focus on both academic and nonacademic outcomes among pupils are comparatively rare. This paper uses data from a national survey of second-level schools in Ireland to assess the relationships among and the factors influencing a range of academic and nonacademic pupil outcomes. The analyses employed the Junior Certificate examination scores, a nationally standardized examination taken at 15-16 years of age from a sample of 116 schools. Additionally, a number of measures of pupil outcomes are used: pupil absenteeism, potential dropout, current stress levels, academic self-image, locus of control, and body image. Analyses indicate that school effectiveness must be seen as outcome-specific since schools that promote academic progress among pupils do not necessarily enhance their personal/social development. Higher performing schools tend to have lower absenteeism and dropout rates. An appendix lists derivation of variables. (Contains 14 references.) (DFR)

Scientization is a process that refers to the mythologies that are generated around the practices of working scientists. This paper discusses how science works on popular consciousness and how particular occupational groups use science to legitimatize their discipline, specifically in physical education. Two examples are presented to illustrate this point. The first relates to trends in the Department of Human Movement Studies in the university system in Australia. The second relates to a lesson on Body Image observed as part of a secondary school physical education program. The lesson focused on the micro-structure of muscle rather than the concept of the social construction of the body-in-culture. Conclusions maintain that the myth of science in secondary and tertiary level physical education programs needs to be deconstructed. (MDH)

Following a review of research literature on eating disorders and the fitness image, the report finds that five socio-cultural influences have been associated with the increase and prevalence of eating disorders: the pressure to be thin; glorification of youth; the changing role of females; media image and marketing of the super woman; and the sport and fitness craze. These pressures have increased in modern society as society has passed the Greek idea of sport, to the current idea of fitness and better teams through starvation and steroids. Health professionals, sport coaches, instructors, and administrators should work against the following mainstream sport culture influences: (1) the "thinning edge" for judges and coaches; (2) obsolescent adolescent athletes; (3) harassed"Golden Girls" in a paternalistic sport world; (4) Sports Illustrated and Vogue fitness market; and (5) Anorexica Athletica and Bulimic Cosmetic Fitness. In summary the paternalistic sport power structure which controls power, prestige and privilege has led to the great "weight shift" which prompted women and men to turn to the "one stone solution" (one stone equals 14 pounds). If she could just lose one stone through starvation and he could gain just one stone through steroids, they would be winners. An opinionnaire and survey results are attached. (ABL)

Due to concerns that body shape preferences contribute to eating disorders among women, a new method to assess observer preferences for female body shapes was devised. In prior studies women have preferred thin models, but men have preferred models of average weight. In Experiment 1, an underweight female model was photographed in a white top and jeans. Later, she was padded to match the measurements of an average weight model and rephotographed. A slide of either the thin or padded model was shown to two separate Introductory Psychology classes, the first with 26 students and the second with 18 students. Due to low numbers of women in one condition, the results for the female subjects were inconclusive. But, contrary to prior findings, male subjects tended to find the thin model to be more appealing. In Experiment 2, student ratings indicated that the model was not perceived to be of the sizes intended. While subjects significantly differentiated the average model from the thin and very thin models, they did not clearly differentiate between the latter two. Because of this, body shape preferences could not be analyzed. The findings pinpoint certain limitations in the method of assessment. All photographs of models need to be pretested. Also, the finding that men prefer thin over average weight women is contrary to prior findings and seems worthy of further study. (Author/LLL)

Use of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) "Basic Stuff" (1981) series (which includes six texts explaining each concept and three texts illustrating their use in the elementary, middle, and secondary schools) is recommended for physical education teacher preparation programs. A study was undertaken to compare classes taught with a "Basic Stuff" approach to those taught with a traditional skill orientation. Two college beginning level volleyball classes and two high-ability swimming conditioning classes were taught, one class in each activity using "Basic Stuff" physiology and kinesiology, and one class in each activity using skill orientation. Following instruction, the "Basic Stuff" classes were found to have significantly more knowledge in skill analysis, movement analysis, technique, and strategy, and to have equal knowledge of rules compared to skill oriented classes. No significant difference was found between classes in skill development or in learning of a novel skill. However, a significant difference was found in a repeat test of the novel skill 2 days following exposure. (JD)

The social factors that impact Caucasian middle-class women's practice of breast self-examination (BSE) were examined through in-depth interviews with 15 women who were selected to represent a mix of women who practiced BSE monthly, occasionally, or never. The meaning of BSE was analyzed in relation to body image and the social definition of being a woman. The analysis was framed within the context of the literature on the following topics: social constructionism; women as gendered learners; the concept of body image; and the practice of BSE. All five women who practiced BSE monthly learned BSE from their gynecologist, were satisfied with their bodies and accepted their body image and breast size, viewed health or wellness in totality, took time for self-care behaviors, understood what normal breast tissue is, and were able to discuss their bodies openly. All the women who practiced BSE occasionally desired to change their breast size or shape, compared themselves to an ideal based on the media and advertising, and were casual about performing BSE even though they all expressed fears about breast cancer. The women who did not practice BSE did not share common views regarding their body image, views on health and wellness, and understanding of what constitutes normal breast tissue. (12 references) (MN)

The paper presents outlines of suggested physical education activities that can be done semi-independently with children in wheelchairs. Sections address the following areas (sample activities in parentheses): developmental activities (rolling over, eye tracking, sliding), activities with an adult (games for two), music activities (dancing), body image activities (shadow play, photography), aquatic activities (painting with water, making bubbles), sensory experiences in the outdoors (listening for sounds), art activities (finger painting), and adapted sports ideas (kickball, bowling). (SBH)

This study investigated whether differences attributable to sociocultural factors existed in the eating-disorder behaviors and body image perception of Puerto Rican and U.S. college women. Participants (n=440) completed the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 and provided demographic information. Results indicated significant differences between the groups in the areas of body dissatisfaction, perfectionism, interpersonal distrust, and maturity fears. The U.S. group scored significantly higher in body dissatisfaction (body image), and the Puerto Rican group scored significantly higher in the other three areas (psychological factors). The U.S. group scored significantly below the normative group in three traits for eating disorders (body dissatisfaction, perfectionism, and interpersonal distrust). The Puerto Rican group scored significantly below the normative group in the same three traits for eating disorders and in maturity fears. There were significant differences in body dissatisfaction by country and body mass index (BMI). A significant positive correlation occurred between body dissatisfaction and BMI and between drive for thinness and BMI for the U.S. sample. Results suggest that college environments and sociocultural expectations contribute to the manifestation, development, and maintenance of eating-disorder behaviors and misperceptions of body image by emphasizing perfection, competition, and physical attractiveness. (Contains 18 tables and 69 references.) (SM)

It is apparent from current research and professional experience that body image has a strong social basis, but the form of such comparisons is unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine likely forms of the social basis of adolescent body image. This study compares two approaches to the social basis of body image to ask to what extent do gendered social comparisons and self-categorizations in terms of sense of group belonging and individuality contribute to body image. Two studies were completed. Study 1 comprised 286 boys and 175 girls; Study 2 comprised 172 boys and 283 girls. In Study 1, body image was slightly higher for boys than girls, yet both girls and boys think that most girls have good body image. Gendered social perceptions were influenced by the gender of the observer for same-sex ratings and opposite-sex ratings. Body image of same-sex peers was higher for girls than boys, and body image of opposite-sex peers was higher for boys than girls. In Study 2, for boys, the opposite sex provided the salient social comparison. For girls, salient social comparisons were also with girls. Implications for research, theory, and practice are discussed. (Contains 6 tables, 1 figure, and 18 references.) (Author/MKA)

A study explored girls' emerging attitudes toward breast care and breast self-exam (BSE) and the extent to which girls had given thought to these issues. Analyses focused specifically on individual differences related to age, stage of breast development, perceived normalcy of breast development, and body image. The sample consisted of 43 white, middle-class girls in grades 5 through 9. All participants completed measures of pubertal development and body image and completed an attitude questionnaire. Results indicated that attitudes toward breast care and BSE were generally positive. Sixty-one percent of the participants indicated that they would allow a physician to examine their breasts, and 60 percent indicated intent to practice BSE as adults. Age was positively associated with knowledge of BSE, having thought about issues related to breast care, and general acceptance of breast care. Both actual stage of breast development and perceived normalcy of breast development were positively related to having thought about issues related to breast care. Affective feelings about the body were not related to either having thought about breast care or being accepting of care. Contains four references. (Author/HTH)

The media's portrayal of the ideal body image has been shown to be a large determinant of one's body image perception. The desire to be excessively thin can be conceived of as an artifact of White-American culture largely due to the media's influence. This study looks at cultures that have had limited exposure to the American ideal and examines differences in perceptions of body image. Previous research has suggested the existence of cultural differences in body satisfaction, with Caucasian Americans exhibiting excessive concern about their current weight and body image. A 4 X 4 factorial (culture x body image measure design) was used to compare female body image perceptions of Caucasian Americans, African-Americans, Hungarians, and former Soviet Georgians. A significant culture-by-body-image measure interaction was found, with White-Americans showing more desire to be thin than all other cultural groups. Georgian women, like American Caucasians, showed significant dissatisfaction with their body image as compared to Hungarian women, thus indicating that they may have adopted the American ultra-thin ideal through brief exposure to American culture. African-American women, however, were relatively satisfied with their body image which can be attributed, in part, to a lack of internalization of the White American standards for beauty and fashion. Contains 15 references. (RJM)

This outline profiles two programs that use dance/movement therapy to help students with low self-esteem, poor body image, poor self-control, lack of trust in others, difficulty identifying and expressing feelings, and poor interpersonal relating skills. Students referred for dance/movement therapy services are assessed for appropriateness, and are eventually scheduled for weekly sessions. Students are seen either individually, in pairs, or in small groups. This therapy involves a holistic approach of psychotherapy which encourages self-expression through movement. It is primarily a non-verbal therapeutic modality which promotes emotional and physical integration. Included in the outline of this program is an overview; a purpose statement; the implementation period of the program; program characteristics; the targeted population; the services provided; the staff; funding concerns; problems; and evaluation data. The programs were designed to increase social competence and to allow children and adolescents the opportunity to express creatively their inner concerns, anxieties, and emotional conflicts in a safe non-threatening manner. (RJM)

Dissatisfaction with body image among women has become a major psychological and physical contemporary problem. This study is among the few to empirically suggest that overall body satisfaction is strongly related to perceived discrepancy of one's body image from ideal societal standards of attractiveness. This study also identifies the personal importance of meeting these ideals (IMI) as a mediating variable between body satisfaction and either self-esteem or depression. The results indicated that body satisfaction was positively correlated with self-esteem and negatively correlated with depression scores in a sample of 164 undergraduate women. As predicted, low body satisfaction alone did not predict self-esteem and depression scores as strongly as when IMI was included as a predictor. The presence of IMI enhances our understanding of why not all women who are dissatisfied with their bodies inevitably display lowered self-esteem and depression scores. (BF)

This document reviews the research linking excessive exercise with eating disorders. Seven steps are listed that an individual follows in going from someone who starts out using exercise and aerobic dance as a stress management technique or a hobby to becoming an exercise dependent individual with addictive behavior. Studies are reviewed, the results of which suggest that while exercise participants and aerobic instructors are generally "healthy" from an eating disorder and body image standpoint, there is a significant minority of underweight participants and instructors who overestimate their body size and have tendencies toward anorexia nervosa and bulimia. It is recommended that those interested in organizing and conducting exercise and fitness programs be concerned by the results of these studies. Included in the document are tables describing red flags for eating disorders, distinguishing features of the athlete/fitness participant, and distinguishing features of the athlete/exercise anorectic/bulimic; danger signs for physicians/researchers and for coaches/fitness instructors; and tips for prevention of eating disorders. Publications on eating disorders that have come from research in the sport and athletic area are recommended. (NB)

An examination of the interaction of social and cultural influences on body image development may yield an explanation for the development of eating disorder behavior, especially in understanding the special problems facing women athletes. There appear to be two major sociocultural factors influencing the development of body image in the population of young women (15-25 years old) most likely to be affected with eating disorders: (1) the onset of the feminist movement which may have contributed to role and identity confusion and (2) the emphasis on thinness for women that emerged during the 1960s. There are three factors that cause disturbance to a smoothly developing body image: biological change; environmental change; and interactional change. As a child matures in thinking abilities, what was once an objective appreciation of body size and physical limitations soon becomes more abstract and qualitative. From that point on, social norms and social experiences dominate the final development of self-image. Increased physical exertion and stimulation tend to facilitate keener body awareness and sense of well-being and therefore enhance satisfaction with body parts. Women athletes clearly indicate more positive feelings toward their bodies than nonathletic women, especially with regard to energy levels and health. Sixty-three references are given. (IAH)

Self-descriptive data from 48 children; 8 male and 8 female 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds, indicated the salience of activity as a dimension of the preschooler's self-concept. Analysis of responses to the 2 most open-ended measures yielded 9 response categories: actions, relationships, body-image, possessions, personal labels, gender, age, evaluation, and personal characteristics and preferences; but only responses in the action category showed relatively high frequency and stability. All age groups also showed significantly greater preference for action rather than body-referent statements. (Author/MS)

Although adolescence is generally recognized as a period of dramatic change, the issue of whether it is also a time of stress and disturbance is still controversial. To examine the impact of pubertal development on adolescents, data were used from a 5-year longitudinal study of white males and females. A variety of self-concept, behavioral, value, and attitudinal measures indicated that for a substantial number of those dimensions, pubertal development had no effect. Early physical development was a mixed blessing for girls in terms of opposite sex popularity and greater independence but a disadvantage in terms of dissatisfaction with their body image, lower academic success, and problem behavior. For males, early development was more of an advantage linked to higher self-esteem and a more stable self-image. The findings are generally consistent with the results from other research. (JAC)

A central component of anorexia nervosa is a body image disturbance (BID). BID, as it is experienced in anorexia nervosa, is defined as an inability to recognize how thin one really is and is exhibited by a sense of feeling overweight in spite of severe emaciation. Several researchers have recognized a relationship between depressive personality traits and a negative body image. This study was conducted to investigate whether there exists a predispositional link between feelings of depression and the onset of BID. Female college students (N=110) with different levels of depression were asked to estimate their body size after being given feedback that they either weighed three percent more or less than they actually did. As predicted, females who had personality traits of depression had a body image that was more vulnerable to the external feedback than did their less depressed counterparts. The external feedback in the study was designed to simulate a possible mechanism that underlies the societal messages American females are constantly confronted with about their weight. The results can aid in understanding the etiology of body image disturbance and offer important implications for the treatment and prevention of BID and anorexia nervosa. (Author/NB)

Research suggests that, in clinical samples, body image disturbances are related to severe eating disorders and problems with self-concept and self-esteem. There have been relatively few studies, however, which have empirically investigated the relation between body image and personality characteristics among normal women. This study investigated the correlation between the attitudinal and perceptual components of body image and self-esteem in a sample of 56 normal weight female undergraduates with no history of an eating disorder. Subjects completed the Personal and Academic Self-Concept Inventory and the Body Parts Satisfaction Questionnaire. Perceptual body image was measured with the Adjustable Light Beam Apparatus and with the Image Marking Procedure. The results revealed that the attitudinal component of body image, but not the perceptual component, was significantly correlated with overall self-esteem and the physical appearance aspect of self-esteem. A significant correlation between the physical appearance dimension of self-esteem and global self-esteem was also found. This latter finding was consistent with findings obtained with eating disordered women. Findings have important implications for the role of physical self-esteem in prevention, treatment, and theories of etiology of the eating disorders. (NB)

In the past 10 years, eating disorders among adolescent females have become of increasing concern. To assess the prevalence of eating disorders, unusual eating-related behaviors and attitudes, and psychological states among college women, 677 women, from three private northeastern United States colleges, completed a questionnaire assessing depression, self-esteem, assertiveness, body image, size, and eating attitudes and behaviors. An analysis of the results showed that, although distorted eating attitudes and behaviors appeared to be fairly common, extreme responses were characteristic of a minority of the women. Of the 677 respondents, 1.5 percent could be classified as near anorexics, 3.7 percent as clinical bulimics, 3.5 percent as near bulimics, 3.5 percent as overweight, and 87.7 percent as "normals." The two bulimic groups were highest in depression and lowest in self-esteem and assertiveness. They significantly overestimated their body size, tended to weigh more than "normals," to have the most varied and bizarre methods of losing weight, and to have the greatest weight fluctuations. Each group had unique patterns of eating-related behavior, with the overweight group representing a midpoint between the "normals" and the eating-disordered. (Author/BL)

A controversial issue in the literature on eating disorders is whether or not bulimia is a disorder distinct from anorexia nervosa. To compare the personality and behavioral characteristics of bulimic women with and without prior anorexia nervosa, 14 female college students (mean age 19.6 years, 86 percent white) were divided into two groups according to operationalized Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM III) criteria for bulimia (N=5) and bulimia-anorexia nervosa (N=9). Subsequently they were administered a battery of questionnaires assessing personality traits and eating disorders including the Herman and Polivy Restraint Scale Revised; Hawkins and Clement Binge Eating Scale; Demand for Approval and the High Self-Expectations subscales of the Jones' Survey of Beliefs and Feelings; Kurtz Body Attitude Scale; Levenson and Gottman Dating and Assertion Questionnaire; Rosenberg Self-Esteem Index; Spence and Helmreich Personality Attributes; and the Beck Depression Inventory. An analysis of the results showed that bulimic women with a prior history of anorexia were more depressed than nonanorexic bulimic women. Bulimic women with a history of anorexia also reported previous treatment for weight related difficulties and higher family incomes than nonanorexic bulimic women. Personality traits for both groups were similar, i.e., low self esteem, high need for approval, high self expectations or perfectionistic strivings, and a poor body image. All women recognized their eating habits as disruptive and expressed an interest in receiving treatment. (BL)