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This study examines the emerging relationship between microcredentials and qualification systems. Information gathered through an online survey among European VET providers, national authorities, employee and employer organisations was complemented by in-depth country case studies and interviews with Cedefop's ReferNet network. Questions of whether and how microcredentials should be related to established qualification systems are at an early stage of consideration in most countries; the focus is on better defining and standardising their role within national qualifications systems. Existing trends towards modularisation and the recognition of prior learning provide potential avenues for realising the benefits of microcredentials in terms of flexibility and responsiveness, while also ensuring their quality for learners and employers. There is still significant debate over how to deal with microcredentials, and how to avoid potential negative effects, such as encouraging a shift away from holistic education towards short-duration learning based around reduced skill sets. Microcredentials are a complex phenomenon, particularly with regard to their relationship to qualifications. In recent years, there has been an acceleration in the availability and use of microcredentials in the labour market, raising questions about their relationship to VET and to qualification systems. The proliferation of microcredentials of different types across various sectors, occupations, education sectors and levels and countries, along with variations between countries in the nature of qualification systems -- which are undergoing change -- make this a complex landscape to research and analyse. To date there has been a lack of data at EU level informing decision-making in this area. This report aims to be a first step towards filling some key gaps in the knowledge around these topics, addressing three main research questions.

This synthesis report, based on a survey carried out during 2022 with Cedefop's reporting network ReferNet, aims to provide a better understanding of the phenomenon of early leaving from vocational education and training (ELVET). Such understanding is a necessary precondition for designing effective responses to help individuals to equip themselves with the appropriate skills to cope with future transformations and to thrive in life. The report has special focus on the mechanisms and support measures countries employ to measure and monitor the phenomenon at national and regional levels; the main factors leading to ELVET as reported by EU Member States, Norway and Iceland; and the support measures teachers, trainers, school principals and companies providing work-based learning received to overcome the challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic and the war of aggression against Ukraine. These challenges included carrying out distance learning during school and company closures and supporting Ukrainian refugees to integrate into the national VET systems of the host countries. It is anticipated that findings will inspire policy-makers to take actions to allow every single young student to celebrate successful learning and life pathways.

Building on the findings of Cedefop/ReferNet thematic perspectives for EU Member States, Norway and Iceland, this synthesis report identifies recent trends and policy developments in Europe on the initial and continuous professional development of VET teachers and trainers. The report points to the different types of VET teachers and trainers in Europe; their evolving and complex role in mastering new technologies, supporting the integration of refugees, identifying and supporting learners at risk of early leaving, and understanding changing labour market needs, to empower and equip students with skills for the future. Their qualifications and opportunities for continuous professional development vary across countries but the challenges policy-makers face in supporting them are shared. The report concludes with key messages for designing effective policies in Europe. [This research paper was produced by Cedefop's Department for VET and skills.]

This research paper is one in a series produced as part of the Cedefop project The changing nature and role of VET (2016-18). The aim of the paper is to provide an overview of how CVET is conceptualised in various international level policy documents and how it is referred to across countries. It discusses national conceptions of CVET, the providers, participation by IVET graduates in non-formal education and training (NFE), and participation of adults in VET education institutions in European Union Member States, Iceland and Norway. The paper describes how the provision of CVET by different types of provider has changed over the past two decades, discussing the main drivers of this change and speculating about possible future trends. One of the main findings is that there are many dominant conceptions of CVET across Europe and the use of this term is not consistent, sometimes not even within countries. [The research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH, led by Dr Jorg Markowitch; the consortium includes the Danish Technological Institute, the Institute of Employment Research (University of Warwick), the Institute of International and Social Studies (Tallinn University) and Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is supporting the project as a subcontractor.]

Work-based learning (WBL) has risen rapidly in the policy agenda over recent years in the European Union. Efforts to strengthen WBL, particularly in vocational education and training (VET), are increasingly common throughout European countries. This report analyses the 2016 EU labour force survey (EU-LFS) ad hoc module, which covers the topic of young people on the labour market. The report focuses on WBL in formal initial education and training. It aims to provide EU-wide updated statistical evidence addressing key aspects: how many young graduates experienced work-based learning as part of their highest education attained, particularly in VET and in tertiary education; who they are; and how well they do on the labour market, in comparison with their counterparts who have not participated in WBL.

The feedback between vocational education and training (VET) and the labour market can provide important input for the review and renewal of qualifications. A feedback loop that is based on learning outcomes helps provide deeper insights into what is required on the labour market, what is offered in training provisions and assessed at the end of a learning programme. The aim of this study is to contribute to strengthening the quality and relevance of qualifications and completing the feedback loop between education and the labour market. It examines methods of collecting data on the match/mismatch between qualifications and labour market requirements, including analysis of how achieved learning outcomes are applied and perceived in the labour market (for example methods of collecting the experience of employers with holders of these qualifications). This report addresses the following two questions: (1) which data already exist in the countries, providing insight into the relevance of qualifications to employees, employers and other labour market stakeholders?; and (2) how can survey methodology be designed to systematically capture the experiences and appreciations of employers as regards the content and profile of qualifications? To what extent, based on limited testing, can scalability of the methodology be achieved?

Key competences are important for personal development, employment, integration into society and lifelong learning. They are transversal and form the basis for all other competences. Acquiring key competences is possible through various learning pathways, including vocational education and training (VET). However, little is known at the European level of how VET supports the key competence development. This research paper investigates three key competences: digital, multilingual and literacy. It analyses the extent to which they are included in initial upper secondary VET in the EU-27, Iceland, Norway and the UK, as well as national policies supporting their development since 2011. It focuses on four areas of intervention: standards, programme delivery, assessment and teacher/trainer competences.

The European Union is likely the most far-developed cross-border public space for higher education. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and the European Research Area (ERA) both span an even larger number of countries including associate and partner countries of the EU. Based on shared European values, such as academic freedom, cross-border cooperation, and mobility, these policy frameworks have been developed in Europe over the last decades and with much success. HE systems in this area are thus well-positioned to benefit from cross-border mobility and collaboration but may at the same time face a certain loss of control over HE, for instance with respect to access due to the cross-border flows of students. This seems to make them vulnerable to populist tendencies and neo-nationalist politics seeking to inhibit the free movement of students, scholars, and data. Such tendencies have never been completely absent on the "old continent" but resurged over the uneven outcomes of globalization, the effects of the global financial and consequent Euro crisis, and the refugee crisis. Meanwhile, the impact of the coronavirus crisis is still by and large unknown. Populist tendencies seem now to be turning against the EU, with its freedom of movement for persons (i.e. open borders) as one of its cornerstones and are therefore of concern for the HE sector. Countries such as the UK, Switzerland, Denmark, and the Netherlands have a different position in the European landscape but are all struggling with the complexity of combining the virtues of an open system with constrained national sovereignty. Sovereignty is required in terms of steering capacity in order to balance access, cost, and quality, i.e. the well-known "higher education trilemma." In open systems this is challenged by the "globalization trilemma", which states that countries cannot have national sovereignty, (hyper)globalization and democracy at the same time. How are the EU, its Member States, and the HE sector responding? Will the Union stay united (i.e. Brexit)? Are the legal competencies of the EU in HE strong enough? What about the many European university associations, leagues, and networks? And what do the millions of (former) Erasmus students have to say?

As a result of its direct link to the labour market, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) plays an important role in equipping the modern workforce with in-demand skills. This discussion paper aims to inspire the introduction of entrepreneurial learning in TVET towards a fully mainstreamed approach, whereby entrepreneurial learning is integrated into the role, function and delivery of TVET systems for the benefit of all learners. The paper provides insight into the different approaches to mainstreaming entrepreneurial learning and illustrates the contribution of the key pillars that make up the entrepreneurial learning ecosystem. This is supported by a series of practical examples from TVET systems around the world, illustrating how entrepreneurial learning is being transformed into reality by governments, TVET systems, communities, networks, institutions, teachers, trainers and TVET learners. This paper explores five elements of the entrepreneurial learning ecosystem: (1) Developing policy for entrepreneurial learning; (2) Curricula and pedagogies; (3) Supporting teachers and trainers; (4) Learning modes other than formal curricula; and (5) Career paths and start-ups.

This publication is the sixth in a series produced as part of the Cedefop project The changing nature and role of VET (2016-18). Based on analysis of developments over the past two decades (1995-2015), the report provides important insights into developments and change processes related to vocationally oriented education and training at higher levels (levels 5 to 8 of the European qualifications framework). Building on detailed national case studies, the report demonstrates the expansion and diversification of vocationally oriented education and training offered at higher levels in European countries and the variations in how countries use the higher levels: there is evidence for strengthening vocational principles at higher levels in various ways as well as for strengthening academic principles. It also covers current debates and potential future challenges, including juggling labour market demands and wider societal values, finding the right balance between academic and vocational principles, and achieving parity of esteem between academically oriented and vocationally oriented qualifications at higher levels, by improving awareness and visibility of the latter. [The research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH, and includes the Danish Technological Institute, the Institute of Employment Research (University of Warwick), the Institute of International and Social Studies (Tallinn University) and Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is supporting the project as a subcontractor.]

The aim of the paper is to identify and analyse patterns and trends in enrolment in upper secondary initial vocational education and training (IVET) in Europe over the period 1995 to 2015. The research produced findings on comparability of the international data as well as trends in enrolment in upper secondary IVET and its share of enrolment in upper secondary education. It found that, in countries where there has been a decline in VET enrolment, most of this is due to a declining youth population. It also found that many fluctuations in enrolment figures are artificial in the sense that they are the result of changing national classification and/or reporting practices. When correcting for these factors, findings show that the development of absolute enrolment in VET, as well as its share of enrolment in upper secondary education, has been quite stable in most countries. [The research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH, and includes the Danish Technological Institute, the Institute of Employment Research (University of Warwick), the Institute of International and Social Studies (Tallinn University) and Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is supporting the project as a subcontractor.]

Based on analysis of developments during the past two decades (1995-2015), the report provides important insights into the responsiveness of national VET systems, notably in relation to changes in demography, technology and the economy. Building on detailed national case studies, this report demonstrates how 'big shocks' (the fall of the Berlin wall, the economic crisis of 2008), national policy reforms and incremental developments over time have changed the character of this crucial part of the European education and training landscape. [This publication is the third in a series produced as part of the Cedefop project, "The changing nature and role of VET (2016-18)." The research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH. For Volume 1, see ED586251. For Volume 2, see ED586252.]

This paper discusses national definitions and conceptions of vocational education and training (VET) in European Union Member States, Iceland and Norway and describes how these have changed over the past two decades. In autumn 2016, Cedefop invited national VET experts to respond to a questionnaire regarding the way national VET systems are understood (in the form of official definitions and overall conceptions). While the survey demonstrates significant diversity across Europe, VET is largely perceived as occupations-specific education and training geared towards securing supply of skilled labour and inferior to general or academic education. The survey also identifies two major trends: significant diversification of VET (in terms of providers, levels and target groups), and strengthening of VET (in the form of renewed emphasis on apprenticeships and increased work-based elements). [This research paper is the second in a series produced as part of the Cedefop project, "The changing nature and role of VET (2016-18)." The research was carried out by a consortium led by 3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH. For Volume 1, see ED586251. For Volume 3, see ED586256.]

This Cedefop study focuses on the contribution that vocational education and training (VET) can make to reducing early leaving from education and training (ELET). Published in two volumes, the first is dedicated to understanding better the learning pathways of young students, providing measurements of early leaving in VET, and understanding the role of VET in breaking the vicious cycle of early leaving and unemployment. This second volume reviews VET-related measures to tackle ELET, either by preventing learners dropping out and/or by bringing those who have already left back to education and training. This volume identifies and discusses the key features of successful policies and practices, plus the conditions necessary to evaluate and upscale successful regional and local practices to national strategies. Contains an annex of reviewed evaluations and main results. Includes a bibliography and webliography. [ICF consulting services conducted the research for this report. For "Leaving Education Early: Putting Vocational Education and Training Centre Stage. Volume I: Investigating Causes and Extent. Cedefop Research Paper. No 57," see ED573444.]

This Cedefop study examines the contribution that vocational education and training (VET) can make to reducing early leaving from education and training (ELET). Published in two volumes, this first looks at quantitative data to understand better the extent of early leaving from VET (ELVET). It analyses mechanisms for monitoring early leaving (at national and EU-levels), and examines VET and labour-market-specific factors, as well as those related to the individual and his/her family background, contributing to this phenomenon. It aims to assist national policy-makers and decision-makers at different levels in developing existing monitoring systems to measure ELVET and inform VET policies to tackle ELET. It also aims to assist European stakeholders to refine the EU indicator to capture the important variations in individual situations of early leavers. The second volume reviews VET-related measures to tackle ELET, either by preventing learners dropping out and/or by bringing those who have already left back to education and training. Contains a bibliography and webliography. [ICF consulting services conducted the research for this report. For "Leaving Education Early: Putting Vocational Education and Training Centre Stage. Volume II: Evaluating Policy Impact. Cedefop Research Paper. No 58," see ED573445.]

Cedefop has been conducting monitoring of the European Credit System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) implementation since 2010; this report covers developments from mid-2013 till 2015. It is based on national responses provided by the ECVET users' group from 28 EU Member States and four EFTA countries. The report examines whether existing credit systems provide conditions for individuals to have their learning accumulated or transferred towards a qualification. It examines key aspects: whether qualifications are based on learning outcomes and organised in units; whether individual units are assessed and validated for further transfer and accumulation; whether units are assigned credit points; and whether VET providers use memoranda of understanding and learning agreements to understand better the learning outcomes they provide. The report also focuses on the ways ECVET is promoted among stakeholders and beneficiaries and on examples of support materials that can be useful to ECVET promoters throughout Europe. Two annexes provide country summaries and websites with ECVET information, by country.

In 1954, the United States Supreme Court decided "Brown v. Board of Education," a case that is known throughout the US and around the world for its strong statements about equality and about the importance of education. The years since the "Brown" decision have been filled with many changes in US law and society. From the perspective of civil rights advocates, many of those changes have resulted in great progress, but others have fallen far short of "Brown's" lofty ambitions. Today, if Americans who are committed to achieving more integrated schools and broader access to quality education look only inside our own law and our own borders, the situation is discouraging. At first glance, however, recent developments in Europe seem to pursue one road not taken by the US Supreme Court. In 2007, the European Court of Human Rights, the most influential international human rights court in the world, decided what some commentators have referred to as "Europe's Brown v. Board of Education." Informed by the contours of what constitutes illegal discrimination under different legal regimes' statutes and judge-made law, this working paper analyzes school desegregation liability and remedies available in the US and the EU (specifically the Czech Republic). Turning to the EU, the authors see how an international human rights court is redefining the way national remedies against discrimination are construed. Before beginning their analysis, the authors explore some similarities and differences between US and European conceptions of race and ethnicity.

Europe faces an increase in the age of its natural population and a reduction in available labour force. The retirement of a highly qualified workforce, alongside a rise in demand for medium- and high-skilled workers, will likely result in labour shortages in several sectors and countries. The movement of qualified, third-country immigrants into the European Union is needed for economic recovery. Guidance services are to the fore in the reception of third-country immigrants; they provide fundamental career information and career management skills (CMS), empowering individuals to acquire autonomy in managing their career in a new country. This Cedefop study analyses guidance strategies to support labour market integration of immigrants. Its findings suggest the need for greater engagement by employers, trade unions and immigrant communities, as well assurance of appropriate practitioner training and improved marketing and communication strategies. The following are appended: (1) List of definitions; and (2) List of abbreviations. A bibliography is also included.

Five areas essential to developing partnerships between the education systems and economies of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe were analyzed: (1) state and social partner roles in supporting links between education/training and the economy; (2) contribution of the world of work to education and training; (3) education/training to underpin economic growth processes; (4) supporting people at the interface between education/training and work; and (5) role of teacher training in linking education/training and the economy. Selected conclusions of the analysis were as follows: (1) correlation of human resource development strategies and employment strategies is essential to enlargement of the European Union; (2) the state should provide the policy and legislative framework to support links between education and the economy; (3) the economy should increasingly contribute to training so that training can become more responsive to labor market needs; (4) promotion of entrepreneurial skills, qualification of the work force by targeting continuing training, and promotion of regional development by tertiary educational institutions are important in promoting growth through education and training; (5) support of the transition from education/training to work must be improved; and (6) teachers' and trainers' capabilities to make learning relevant to labor market needs should be strengthened. (MN)

Low-qualified adults have experienced a greater rise in unemployment than any other group in Europe. What particular barriers are they facing in (re-)entering the labour market? How can VET be used in active labour market policies to help overcome these barriers? How can training programmes be designed to address the particular needs of this target group? This report shows how work-based learning (WBL) programmes which include key competence development can make an important contribution. WBL offers a way of learning which is different and has the potential to be more attractive and suitable than "traditional" school-based forms, especially for those with previous negative experience. Its potential comes not only from the mode of delivery, but also from the knowledge, skills and competences it can foster and a range of other benefits, such as the opportunity to connect with potential employers. The following are appended: (1) European reference framework of key competences; (2) Interviews; (3) Case study information; and (4) Case study example. [This work was carried out under Cedefop's service contract AO/ECVL/ADEHM/ReturnToWork/004/11.]

This report provides an analysis of the labour market impacts of EU policy interventions designed to support the transition to a job-rich, low-carbon economy. The approach taken is innovative as it combines quantitative (econometric modelling) and qualitative (case study) methods to investigate the expected impact of sustainable energy policies on employment and skills demand, while providing insights for the development of effective policies for VET activities that allow skills demands to be met. This report claims that the climate and energy targets can be achieved at the same time as EU employment targets. However, to do so requires greater integration of climate and energy polices with measures to support employment and skills development across the EU. Recognising the complementarity of education and training policies to low-carbon strategies is essential to ensuring skills needs are met and that the transition process is not held back. The following annexes are included: (1) Glossary of terms; (2) Abbreviations; (3) References; (4) Model-based approach; (5) Detailed model outputs; (6) Sustainable energy policy context; and (7) Domain analysis.

This report focuses on the outcomes of vocational education and, in particular, on the transition from education to work in the current employment situation for young adults in the European Union. Using anonymised microdata from the EU labour force survey 2009 ad hoc module, this is one of the first studies to undertake a large cross-country comparison of the labour market outcomes of different education orientations and levels. The report underlines that vocational education graduates experience initially positive labour-market outcomes relative to graduates of medium-level general education. Vocational graduates enjoy a faster transition to work, are more likely to have a permanent first job, and are less likely to find a first job with a qualification mismatch. Additional country level analysis is complemented by an investigation of national institutional features as a possible explanation for cross-country differences in VET labour market outcomes. Annexes include: (1) ISCED [international standard classification of education] definitions; (2) Empirical models used in analysis; (3) Labour market institutions and VET premiums: Theoretical links; and (4) Robustness of institutional analysis. [This report is the result of a team effort, with contributions from Cedefop colleagues under the supervision of Pascaline Descy (Head of Research and Policy Analysis). Alex Stimpson coordinated the study. Marco Serafini and Konstantinos Pouliakas finalised the report. Giovanni Russo and Nick Sofroniou provided valuable input and suggestions throughout. Cedefop is grateful to Emilio Colombo and Luca Stanca (University of Milano-Bicocca) for the research and drafting. This work was carried out under Cedefop's service contract No AO/RPA/ALSTIMSERA/ labour market outcomes of VET/008/10.]

The concept of social exclusion has been widely debated in Europe, though there has been little discussion of its application to children. This paper examines what is meant by exclusion of children, considering the choice of reference group, the geographical dimensions of exclusion, and the issue of who is responsible for any exclusion of children. It looks at social exclusion in the United Kingdom and in the European Union, then it goes on to discuss the use of the concept of exclusion in the United States, where in contrast to Europe, it has achieved little penetration to date. To assess whether there are grounds for discussion of social exclusion as it relates to children in the United States, the paper focuses on various features of U.S. society and institutions, including the measurement of poverty, analysis of children's living standards, state versus federal responsibilities, welfare reform, the emphasis on personal responsibility, and politics and the economy. (Contains 58 references.) (SM)

This paper examines the political status of Romani. the language of the Gypsies/Roma, in the European Union (EU). Even though some groups do not call themselves "Roma," all Romani speaking groups use the name "Romanes" for their language and "Romani/Romano/Romane" for everything related to their group. All groups use the same language, and all languages can be subdivided into dialects. Three aspects make Romani dialects more diverse than other EU dialects: absence of centuries long influence from a standard language or prestige dialect; influence from a variety of local languages; and a great number of communities of Romani speakers (with speakers not all in contact with each other). This paper highlights the following: (1) "Introduction"; (2) "The Roma"; (3) "Roma and International Organizations"; (4) "The Romani Language: Demographic and Sociolinguistic Data"; (5) "The Status of Romani in International Institutions"; (6) "Romani and European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (non-territorial languages and implementation); (7) "The Framework Convention on the Protection of National Minorities"; (8) "Article 27 of the Un-Covenant on Civil and Political Rights"; (9) "Country-by-Country Survey of Romani in EU Countries" (individual countries, Romani in education, and publications in and about Romani); and (10) "Conclusions: The Future of Romani." (Contains 47 references.) (SM)

This paper situates languages in the framework of European construction, analyzing problems resulting from the definition of languages' official status in the European Union (EU) juridical system. It explains that the process of European construction is historically defined by means of two distinct features (it is an open process, and at the same time, it is an accumulative process). The paper looks at the system of linguistic officiality in the EU (the Council, the Parliament, the Court of Justice, and Ombudsman), then it notes that the question for many policymakers, officials, and journalists is whether the current system is sustainable at this stage of the EU enlargement process. After summarizing a 1995 Parliamentary resolution on the use of official languages in EU institutions, the paper discusses minority languages, which are not EU official languages. It concludes that since the European construction process is an ongoing process, linguistic vertebration will continue to be a provisional matter. It suggests that if Europe is going to be constructed based on diversity and liberty, then Europe will be a place of bilingual people. (SM)

The use of demand-side financing mechanisms and vouchers for postcompulsory secondary-level education was examined through case studies of funding practices in the following countries: Austria; France; the United Kingdom; the United States; and Wallonia (the French community of Belgium). Different models of voucher use were identified in the countries studied. "Pure" vouchers with a paper coupon were found in a minority of cases (in parts of France and England/Wales). In Austria, training accounts co-fund various types of adult learning by providing funding in arrears rather than in advance of training undertaken, which eliminates the purchasing power apparent with vouchers and quasi-vouchers. The aims and targets of the various voucher and quasi-voucher schemes varied considerably. In the United Kingdom, trainees with special needs received vouchers with higher face values (to avoid the "cream skimming" that may be encouraged by flat-rate vouchers). Voucher and voucher-like schemes were found to have considerable potential to promote lifelong learning and to increase investment in training. The case studies further established that voucher and voucher-like schemes are highly flexible mechanisms that can be designed differently to meet a diverse range of economic, social, and political objectives, depending on policymakers' objectives and priorities. (Contains 54 references.) (MN)

This situational analysis on vocational education and training in Kosovo provides an assessment of the key issues on that topic before the postwar rebuilding effort starts and also identifies short-term priorities, points to medium and long-term requirements, and recommends measures for the short-term that can be considered and carried out by the European Agency for Reconstruction. Sections are entitled "Introduction,""Objective,""General Education,""Labor Market Reform and Training,""Management Training,""Higher Education," and "Conclusion and Followup."The following items are appended: (1) lists of contacts in various education and training sectors; (2) a description of the information and computer science library network project; (3)construction and local development proposals; (4) a draft concept note; (5) cost estimates of recommended education and training measures; and (6) a February 2002 paper "A Strategy for Vocational Training. Supporting the Unemployed and Job-Seekers in Kosovo: Enhancing Employability" from the United Nations Mission in Kosovo Transitional Department of Labour and Social Welfare. (MN)

Increasing the mobility of service providers, including professionals, via mutual recognition (of regulatory systems) agreements (MRAs) has become a significant issue worldwide. Despite increasing interest in MRAs, it may be argued that MRAs are but one of a larger range of major developments that have fueled current interest in occupational competence descriptors and professional practice. Other important developments are as follows: rapid and accelerating change; public dissatisfaction with the professions; the limited understanding of the nature of professional practice; the emergence of a knowledge society; globalization leading to a corporate model of service provision; and moves to alternative and flexible modes of service delivery. The claim that mutual recognition is but one issue among these major developments may be illustrated by the examples of the following accreditation schemes: (1) the Law Society of New South Wales Specialist Accreditation Scheme; (2) the regulatory model recently developed in the United States by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing; (3) the competence-based assessment strategy developed by the Dietitians Association of Australia; and (4) various practices being used to assess competence in 17 Australian professions. These examples demonstrate that the role of professional competence standards in MRAs and in professionals' mobility is far from clear. (Contains 25 references.) (MN)

During the last 5-10 years, a number of countries have introduced methods and systems for identifying, validating, and recognizing prior and nonformal learning that can be viewed as tools for improving the transparency and transfer of skills. In most cases, they have been operational for a comparatively short time, which makes it difficult to decide whether expectations regarding them are justified. Some of the most important initiatives and innovations connected with the identification and validation of prior and nonformal learning include examples from Australia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, and United Kingdom. The French, Australian, Irish, and British methodologies are based on related principles, introducing different versions of portfolios, dossiers, or passports. Finland, Germany, and Japan have been reluctant to introduce the portfolio method. In spite of similarities in design, countries tend to apply the methodologies in different ways. This difference may be seen as a difference between centralized and decentralized systems. Initiatives and ideas on a European level are the Individual Portfolio Project and the Personal Skills Card and the European Skills Accreditations system. Some basic questions related to the legitimacy of the new methods and systems deal with the institutional basis, flexibility versus fragmentation, transparency and visibility, and transfer. (German, English, and French versions appear in side-by-side columns. Appendixes contain 27 references and 18 notes.) (YLB)

This paper examines the goals, architecture, and means of lifelong learning. The following are among the topics discussed: economic and social dimensions of the forces pushing Europe toward a learning society (investing in people; promoting employment in an era of structural change; making firms key partners in the learning society; overcoming the fragmentation of life into education, work, and retirement; forging new routes to equal opportunities; diversifying education and training opportunities in Europe); clarification of goals and purposes (reconciling cultural, social, and economic goals; building on past achievements; devising a new "systemic" logic); movement toward a flexible architecture of institutions and opportunities (a learner-centered, consumer-led process of change; learning outcomes as a rallying point; redistribution of life chances); strategic changes in institutional frameworks (schools as foundations for lifelong learning up to age 16; initial vocational training and new pathways from school to work; development and renewal of the adult population's human capital through continuing education; creation of a frontier-knowledge and advanced-skills base through higher education and research); and new ways and means for lifelong learning (new methodologies and networks, more flexible systems of qualifications). (MN)

The benefits of and issues associated with output-related funding (ORF) were assessed by examining the use of ORF in vocational education and training (VET) in the European Union and the United States. Data were gathered in the following ways: several online bibliographic searches; consultation with 54 experts, including VET researchers, national policymakers, and lobbyists; CEDEFOP requests for information from organizations and individuals; and traditional library searches. ORF was defined as basing funding on outputs produced, which are generally measured in terms of the achievement of qualifications for school-based training and/or job attainment. The emphasis given to ORF in the VET programs examined ranged from 75% (the United Kingdom's Training for Work program) to 5% (Job Training Partnership Act programs). ORF was determined to offer the following benefits: gives training providers more flexibility in the type of provision offered; enhances improvements in performance; increases value for money by providing incentive to fulfill certain achievements and discouraging "time-serving" in training, which does not lead to outcomes; and simplifies administration and clarifies audit requirements. ORF's success in achieving efficiency, reducing administrative costs, and enhancing accountability could not be determined unequivocally because it was rarely used as the sole instrument of performance management. (57 references) (MN)