Search

Background: Age is one of the predominant reasons for perceived discrimination in developing world where older people are considered a non-contributing burden. The present study explores the prevalence and correlates of perceived age discrimination among older Indian adults.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a large representative survey data from the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India conducted during 2017-18. Participants included 31,464 older adults aged 60 years and above. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to test the associations between selected background characteristics and perceived age discrimination.Results: The analysis revealed that 10.33 percent of older adults perceived their age as the main reason for discrimination, which was 11.86% among the oldest-old. Older adults with more than 10 years of schooling were 32% [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 0.68; confidence interval (CI): 0.51-0.89] less likely to perceive age discrimination compared to their uneducated counterparts. The odds of perceived age discrimination were higher among older adults who earlier worked [AOR: 1.73; CI: 1.46-2.05] and currently working [AOR: 1.61; CI: 1.31-1.96] as compared to those who never worked. Further, having difficulty in instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) [AOR: 1.43; CI: 1.25 -1.65] and having one chronic condition [AOR: 1.16; CI: 1.02 -1.34] were associated with increased odds of perceived age discrimination among older adults.Conclusion: Older adults with lower socioeconomic status, currently working, having more chronic conditions, difficulty in IADL and belonging to rural areas were found to perceive higher age discrimination than their counterparts. The findings of the study have important implications for policy makers with respect to strategies such as making the vulnerable populations aware of their legal rights that help in the prevention of age-based discrimination in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflict caused by wild herbivores damaging crops is an almost universal problem in conservation. We designed and implemented a game‐theory‐based system for supporting farmers whose crops were being heavily damaged by wild herbivores. In this community‐operated system, farmers self‐report their production, which is endorsed by neighboring farmers. The average deficit in production is compensated for by a payment that is directly proportional to the average deficit in production of the group and to the individual farmer's productivity. As a result, farmers are compensated for the average damage (support) and rewarded for individual productivity (reward) (i.e., support cum reward [SuR]). The design of the game is such that only honest reporting gives maximum returns. Farmers who underreport receive less payment because the SuR amount is proportionate to their self‐reported productivity. The endorsing farmers, in their own self‐interest, prevent overreporting. The system involves multiple game situations, the combined result of which is a stable strategy based on honesty and hard work. In 2 villages along the western boundary of Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in central India, we tested the system with 75 farmers over 6 crop seasons. After a few initial attempts to cheat, honesty prevailed throughout the group. Average crop productivity increased 2.5‐fold, in spite of damage, owing to increased effort by farmers. Apart from wildlife conflict resolution, the model offers a promising alternative to crop insurance and a potential behavioral green revolution in agriculture. Article impact statement: A novel scheme of payment for damage and reward for productivity helped resolve farmer–wildlife conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The renewable energy policies of many countries have actively endorsed Local/Domestic Content Requirements (LCR/DCR) on the assertion of providing protection to their niche technology markets. However, potential usefulness and legality of local content requirements (LCRs) are regularly contested on the premise of their trade distorting impacts and lower allocative efficiencies. The initial Indian solar policy also provided differentiated incentives for ground mounted grid connected solar deployments using domestically manufactured Crystalline-Silicon (C-Si) panels (DCR) over the imported ones. This study maps socio economic impacts of the two categories of deployment using Input Output (IO) analysis. The methodology introduces solar generation as a new production activity into Indian economy. An independent solar I-O block is constructed and integrated as a new sector in 35x35 national input output table (2011) obtained from world input output databases (WIOD). The analysis involves tracking Inter industry transactions involved in installing a unit of grid connected ground mounted photovoltaic solar power capacity in India. Both solar blocks compile data at purchasers' price for PV module, mounting structure, power conditioning unit, construction and preoperative costs of the power plant. Followed by adjustments for existing fiscal elements like applicable subsidies, VAT, excise duty and incurred transportation costs. The DCR block is differentiated by dissociation of solar panel manufacturing Industry into inputs for manufacturing module, wafer and cells with in the economy while in case of non DCR solar blocks, solar panels feature in the imports column. Direct and indirect impacts in terms of output, employment and income generation are estimated followed by distributive efficiencies of the sectoral wage generation associated with the two categories of deployment. The results reveal that direct and indirect output (GDP generation) of DCR deployments is 24.74% higher than of open category projects. The DCR projects also produce 36.64% more economy wide employment when compared to open category projects. Further, distributive efficiencies associated with quality of employment generated favors DCR deployments in India. This study thus provides initial evidence and policy guidance on usefulness of domestic content requirement in promoting regional green growth for the growing solar sector in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper highlights the issues in the prominent copyright case between some big publishers and a Delhi University photocopy shop. The paper also addresses the question whether the present copyright system in India requires a relook in view of the changing socio-economic conditions of our society and the world at large. Concludes that supporting students and researchers in their study and research are essential and some changes are required in the present copyright toward this end. Open Access (OA) publishing is a step in that direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: High frequency of low birth weight (LBW) is observed in rural compared with urban Indian women. Since maternal BMI is known to be associated with pregnancy outcomes, the present study aimed to investigate factors associated with BMI in early pregnancy of urban and rural South Indian women.Design: Prospective observational cohort.Setting: A hospital-based study conducted at an urban and a rural health centre in Karnataka State.Subjects: Pregnant women (n 843) aged 18-40 years recruited in early pregnancy from whom detailed sociodemographic, environmental, anthropometric and dietary intake information was collected.Results: A high proportion of low BMI (32 v. 26 %, P<0·000) and anaemia (48 v. 23 %, P<0·000) was observed in the rural v. the urban cohort. Rural women were younger, had lower body weight, tended to be shorter and less educated. They lived in poor housing conditions, had less access to piped water and good sanitation, used unrefined fuel for cooking and had lower standard of living score. The age (β=0·21, 95 % CI 0·14, 0·29), education level of their spouse (β=1·36, 95 % CI 0·71, 2·71) and fat intake (β=1·24, 95 % CI 0·20, 2·28) were positively associated with BMI in urban women.Conclusions: Our findings indicate that risk factors associated with BMI in early pregnancy are different in rural and urban settings. It is important to study population-specific risk factors in relation to perinatal health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Animal studies have demonstrated poor cognitive outcomes in offspring in relation to maternal vitamin D deficiency before and/or during pregnancy. Human studies linking maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy with offspring cognitive function are limited. We aimed to test the hypothesis that lower maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy is associated with poor offspring cognitive ability in an Indian population.Methods and Study Design: Cognitive function was assessed in children from the Mysore Parthenon birth cohort during childhood (age 9-10 years; n=468) and adolescence (age 13-14 years; n=472) using 3 core tests from the Kaufman Assessment Battery for children and additional tests measuring learning, long-term retrieval/ storage, short-term memory, reasoning, verbal fluency, visuo-spatial ability, and attention and concentration. Maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration was measured at 30±2 weeks of gestation.Results: During pregnancy 320 (68%) women had 'vitamin D deficiency' (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration <50 nmol/L). Girls scored better than boys in tests of short-term memory, reasoning, verbal fluency, and attention (p<0.05 for all). Maternal vitamin D status (low as well as across the entire range) was unrelated to offspring cognitive function at both ages, either unadjusted or after adjustment for the child's current age, sex, maternal age, parity, season at the time of blood sampling, gestational age, the child's birth and current size, socio-economic status, parents' education, maternal intelligence and home environment.Conclusions: In this population, despite a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy, there was no evidence of an association between maternal vitamin D status and offspring cognitive function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Acute viral hepatitis (AVH) caused by enterically transmitted hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) poses a major health problem in developing countries such as India. Despite improving sanitation, heath awareness, and socioeconomic conditions, these infections continue to occur both in sporadic as well as in epidemic forms in different parts of India. AIMS: The aim of this study is to determine the total as well as age-specific prevalence rates of HAV and HEV in the outbreaks of waterborne hepatitis in districts surrounding Amritsar region of Punjab. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was conducted in the Virology Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, Government Medical College, Amritsar, during the study period of January 2015-March 2016. Samples from suspected outbreaks of AVH occurring in various districts around Amritsar were included as a part of the study. A total of 95 sera were tested for IgM antibody to HEV and HAV using IgM capture ELISA kit. RESULTS: Out of the total 95 samples received, 73 samples (76.84%) were positive for HAV/HEV. Out of the total positive cases, 65 (68.42%) had HEV infection, 2 (2.1%) had HAV, and 6 cases (6.31%) were coinfected with both HAV and HEV. The 21-30 years age group (25 cases) was identified as the most susceptible group for HEV infection. The coinfected subjects presented a wider range of age distribution (1-10 years: 1; 11-20 years: 3; 21-30 years: 1; 31-40 years: 1). Seasonal distribution of data revealed bimodal peaks for HEV infection. CONCLUSION: There should be some surveillance system to regularly monitor the portability of drinking water from time to time to avoid such preventable outbreaks in future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mean and extreme matrices of the monsoon rainfall in India not only play an important role in depicting the global monsoon climate, but also their spatiotemporal patterns influence the socio-economic profile of a major proportion of the country's huge population. Given the reported conflicting trends at the global and national scales, the present study investigates the 20th century (1901–2004) changes in monsoon rainfall of India, particularly focusing the indices developed by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices (ETCCDI) to facilitate a global comparison. Result of this comprehensive analysis, which includes the response of fifteen indices over two study periods (i.e., 1901–1940 and 1961–2004), indicates clear signals of change with respect to the period and region of study and the choice of the ETCCDI indices. While wet day frequency, low-to-moderate events and consecutive wet days (CWD) exhibit a prominent transition from a pre-1940 wetting to a post-1960 drying tendency over a large part of the central-north India (CNI), both the wet and dry extremes have occurred in a spatially less consistent manner during the recent decades. For consecutive dry days (CDD), the reported less clear global signals could be related to the timescale of analysis, as our sub-seasonal scale results display consistent changes compared to that of the seasonal and annual scales. The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) provides clear indications of a post-1960 non-stationarity, showing changes in the mean as well as variance. Based on the partial Mann–Kendall test (PMK), some of the identified rainfall trends during 1961–2004 are found to be influenced more by the tropical Indian Ocean sea surface temperatures than the El Niño–Southern Oscillation index. These results have important implications for formulating the water resource management strategy, particularly over the drying central and northern parts of the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The indigenous food environment, dietary intake and nutritional status of women in the Santhal tribal community of Jharkhand were assessed. Contribution of indigenous foods to nutritional status and nutrient intakes was explored. Design: Exploratory cross-sectional study with a longitudinal dietary intake assessment component. Household and dietary surveys were conducted to elicit information on socio-economic and demographic profile and food consumption patterns at household level. A 24 h dietary recall for two consecutive days (repeat surveys in two more seasons) and anthropometric assessments were carried out on one woman per household. Setting: Households (n 151) with at least one woman of reproductive age in four villages of Godda district of Jharkhand, India. Subjects: Women aged 15-49 years. Results: Almost all households owned agricultural land and grew fruits and vegetables in backyards for household consumption. A wide variety of indigenous foods were reported but dietary recalls revealed low intake. Women consumed adequate energy and protein but micronutrient intake was inadequate (less than 66% of recommended) in the majority (more than 50%) for Ca, Fe, vitamin B2, folate and vitamin B12. Women consuming indigenous foods in the past 2 d had significantly higher intakes of Ca (P=0·008) and Fe (P=0·010) than those who did not. Varying degrees of underweight were observed in 50% of women with no significant association between underweight and consumption of indigenous foods. Conclusions: Promotion of preferential cultivation of nutrient-dense indigenous food sources and effective nutrition education on their importance may facilitate better micronutrient intakes among women in Santhal community of Jharkhand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An estimated 70,000 personnel are annually released at the prime of life from the Indian armed forces to maintain a youthful service profile. The migration of veterans in search of a second career to civil society involves managing crucial socioeconomic needs. This article examines the resettlement needs of veterans using survey research which measured resettlement needs of air force veterans in two distinct districts (regions) in India (N = 400). The analysis reveals that the educational needs of dependent children are on top of the agenda followed by the need to find civilian employment. This study also develops a socioeconomic need continuum and a motivation model of resettlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An attempt was made to document various constraints faced by Ahir community goat keepers by selecting 300 goat keepers from Valsad and Navsari districts of south Gujarat using multistage random sampling technique. The data was collected by interview schedule on five point agreement scale. The analyzed data revealed nine management related, ten socio-economic and five region specific constraints. Among them high feed cost and more illness and mortality emerged as the most important management related constraints. Lack of credit facility and high wage rate emerged as top socio-economic constraints. The region specific constraints identified were heavy rainfall condition and floods/natural disasters. It was suggested that the above said most important constraints must be considered for developing remedial package for profitable goat farming in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports an objective criterion for the real-time extended-range prediction of monsoon onset over Kerala (MOK), using circulation as well as rainfall information from the 16 May initial conditions of the Grand Ensemble Prediction System based on the coupled model CFSv2. Three indices are defined, one from rainfall measured over Kerala and the others based on the strength and depth of the low-level westerly jet over the Arabian Sea. While formulating the criterion, the persistence of both rainfall and low-level wind after the MOK date has been considered to avoid the occurrence of 'bogus onsets' that are unrelated to the large-scale monsoon system. It is found that the predicted MOK date matches well with the MOK date declared by the India Meteorological Department, the authorized principal weather forecasting agency under the government of India, for the period 2001-14. The proposed criterion successfully avoids predicting bogus onsets, which is a major challenge in the prediction of MOK. Furthermore, the evolution of various model-predicted large-scale and local meteorological parameters corresponding to the predicted MOK date is in good agreement with that of the observation, suggesting the robustness of the devised criterion and the suitability of CFSv2 model for MOK prediction. However, it should be noted that the criterion proposed in the present study can be used only in the dynamical prediction framework, as it necessitates input data on the future evolution of rainfall and low-level wind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Behavioral risk factors such as tobacco use, unhealthy diet, insufficient physical activity and the harmful use of alcohol are known and modifiable contributors to a number of NCDs and health mediators. The purpose of this paper is to describe the distribution of main risk factors for NCDs by socioeconomic status (SES) among adults aged 50 years and older within a country and compare these risk factors across six lower- and upper-middle income countries. Methods: The study population in this paper draw from SAGE Wave 1 and consisted of adults aged 50-plus from China (N=13,157), Ghana (N=4,305), India (N=6,560), Mexico (N=2,318), the Russian Federation (N=3,938) and South Africa (N=3,836). Seven main common risk factors for NCDs were identified: daily tobacco use, frequent heavy drinking, low level physical activity, insufficient vegetable and fruit intake, high risk waist-hip ratio, obesity and hypertension. Multiple risk factors were also calculated by summing all these risk factors. Results: The prevalence of daily tobacco use ranged from 7.7% (Ghana) to 46.9% (India), frequent heavy drinker was the highest in China (6.3%) and lowest in India (0.2%), and the highest prevalence of low physical activity was in South Africa (59.7%). The highest prevalence of respondents with high waist-to-hip ratio risk was 84.5% in Mexico, and the prevalence of self-reported hypertension ranging from 33% (India) to 78% (South Africa). Obesity was more common in South Africa, the Russia Federation and Mexico (45.2%, 36% and 28.6%, respectively) compared with China, India and Ghana (15.3%, 9.7% and 6.4%, respectively). China, Ghana and India had a higher prevalence of respondents with multiple risk factors than Mexico, the Russia Federation and South Africa. The occurrence of three and four risk factors was more prevalent in Mexico, the Russia Federation and South Africa. Conclusion: There were substantial variations across countries and settings, even between upper-middle income countries and lower-middle income countries. The baseline information on the magnitude of the problem of risk factors provided by this study can help countries and health policymakers to set up interventions addressing the global non-communicable disease epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dairying has an acknowledged role to play in socio-economic transformation and sustainable rural development in India. Indian dairying is the best example for production by masses rather than mass production. Milk is the second largest agricultural commodity (140 million tonnes) produced in our country next only to rice. The Indian dairy industry is rapidly growing, trying to keep pace with the galloping progress around the world and offers opportunities galore to entrepreneurs worldwide. The demand of milk in India is projected to increase to 191.3 million tonnes in 2020. At the existing growth rate in milk production, supply is likely to fall short of the demand in next ten years. Consistent efforts are needed to bring the small holders under an umbrella to ensure the milk produced is safe and meets the standards. Technological intervention at the grassroot level coupled with synergy of technological and organizational improvements at all levels of dairying would assist to improve milk quantity, quality and competitiveness of Indian dairying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to Intergenerational Flow of Wealth Theory of J.C. Cladwell (1976), the decision of having high fertility in the developing countries is very rational from the point of view of the elderly. They are believed to truly act as a long-lasting support system to their parents when they get old in every aspect of life, but the scenario is changing rapidly. With rapid modernization of our society children are no longer the fixeddeposit of support of elderly even in a country like India. Isolation and helplessness have become the part and parcel of life of elderly even in modern India which adversely impacts their wellbeing. This paper is an effort to quantify the level of care and support provided by the children to the elderly of the country and how this quality of care finally affects their wellbeing through their subjective health. This paper has used the data of the recent large scale project of ageing conducted by ISEC, Bangalore and IEG, Delhi in sponsorship of UNFPA, India, named "Building Knowledge Base on Aging in India". The survey is conducted to develop a knowledge base in regard to the demographic, social and economic conditions, health needs and living arrangements and entitlements. Multinomial logit estimation is used to show the impact of socio-economic factors on the different care and support aspect and also on the wellbeing of the elderly. Marginal effect shows that quality of care and support to elderly is fast decreasing. With the expected bulge of elderly population in the coming decades, government must take some steps in advance to combat with this situation. In the light of empirical results, some policy prescription has been suggested for benefit of the elderly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poorly structured debthas been important cause of indulging economic crisis in several emerging economy. In the case of India, less attention has been paid to the level, cost and structure of India's overall public debt, both domestic and external. The present paper tries to analyse the trend and composition of India's debt situation at Central and state level. It makes an evolution of India's efforts towards achieving debt sustainability. It also tries to examine the debt sustainability through the theoretical debt sustainability criteria. Towards the end, the final section concludes. India's current public debt level can be termed sustainable. India's public debt remains sustainable given manageable interest rate cost and economic growth. The share of India's external debt is small; nearly all of the government debt is in fixed interest rate loans. Predominance of internal debt in India's total public sector debt has been a major factor in containing India's vulnerability to development. However, to the extent that internal borrowings by the public sector crowd out private sector domestic borrowings, the country's vulnerability to external developments may grow as the private sector's external debt increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose. The anthropometric status and growth of adolescents living in challenging conditions such as slums are insufficiently studied. The purpose here was to describe anthropometric characteristics and nutritional status of adolescents from urban slums of India and to study the factors affecting it. Methods. Anthropometric, socioeconomic and dietary habit data were collected using structured questionnaires of six hundred adolescents aged 10-19 years by house-to-house survey conducted in two randomly selected slums of Nashik, Western India. The growth of adolescents was compared using WHO and Indian reference populations. Mixed effects logistic regression models were used to examine associations between anthropometric measures and income, mother's education, household size, and dietary intake. Results. Prevalences of stunting and thinness were lower using the Indian reference population compared to that of WHO. Stunting was more prevalent than thinness in the study subjects, and boys suffered more than girls. The effect of age on stunting was different among boys than girls. A mother's education was highly significantly associated with both stunting and thinness in both sexes. Household size and income were significantly associated with the nutritional status of girls. Conclusions. Educating mothers about the nutritional needs of adolescents may help to improve adolescents' anthropometric profile and future health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: India has over 50 million diabetics, a great socio-economic burden due to associated mortality and morbidity. As diet has pivotal role in management, good knowledge and its correct practice is vital for management of diabetes. Aim: To study the knowledge and practices of diet in type 2 diabetes belonging to low socioeconomic group. Methodology: 100 diabetic patients attending OPD at chigetteri hospital with low socioeconomic group. They were in interviewed based on questions prepared for the study. Results: 100 patients both male and female were interviewed. Their knowledge about diabetes status is poor, 92% believed that diet modification would help in control of diabetes but only 51% followed some restrictions. Patients educational background was very poor which might have contributed for their reluctance and ignorance. Patients received knowledge and information about diabetes from the treating physician. There were no educational programmes to teach them about the disease or its management. Conclusion: There is urgent need for diabetes education programmes. If this generation is educated about diabetes and prevention of complications, future generation will be free of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Most attempts to address undernutrition, responsible for one third of global child deaths, have fallen behind expectations. This suggests that the assumptions underlying current modelling and intervention practices should be revisited. Objective: We undertook a comprehensive analysis of the determinants of child stunting in India, and explored whether the established focus on linear effects of single risks is appropriate. Design: Using cross-sectional data for children aged 0–24 months from the Indian National Family Health Survey for 2005/2006, we populated an evidence-based diagram of immediate, intermediate and underlying determinants of stunting. We modelled linear, non-linear, spatial and age-varying effects of these determinants using additive quantile regression for four quantiles of the Z-score of standardized height-for-age and logistic regression for stunting and severe stunting. Results: At least one variable within each of eleven groups of determinants was significantly associated with height-for-age in the 35% Z-score quantile regression. The non-modifiable risk factors child age and sex, and the protective factors household wealth, maternal education and BMI showed the largest effects. Being a twin or multiple birth was associated with dramatically decreased height-for-age. Maternal age, maternal BMI, birth order and number of antenatal visits influenced child stunting in non-linear ways. Findings across the four quantile and two logistic regression models were largely comparable. Conclusions: Our analysis confirms the multifactorial nature of child stunting. It emphasizes the need to pursue a systems-based approach and to consider non-linear effects, and suggests that differential effects across the height-for-age distribution do not play a major role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been an increased focus on non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in India, especially on cardiovascular diseases and associated risk factors. In this essay, we scrutinize the prevailing narrative that cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) are no longer confined to the economically advantaged groups but are an increasing burden among the poor in India. We conducted a comprehensive review of studies reporting the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and CVRF, CVD, and CVD-related mortality in India. With the exception of smoking and low fruit and vegetable intake, the studies clearly suggest that CVRF/CVD is more prevalent among high SES groups in India than among the low SES groups. Although CVD-related mortality rates appear to be higher among the lower SES groups, the proportion of deaths from CVD-related causes was found to be greatest among higher SES groups. The studies on SES and CVRF/CVD also reveal a substantial discrepancy between the data presented and the authors’ interpretations and conclusions, along with an unsubstantiated claim that a reversal in the positive SES-CVRF/CVD association has occurred or is occurring in India. We conclude our essay by emphasizing the need to prioritize public health policies that are focused on the health concerns of the majority of the Indian population. Resource allocation in the context of efforts to make health care in India free and universal should reflect the proportional burden of disease on different population groups if it is not to entrench inequity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed the burden of cancer on households’ out-of-pocket health spending, non-medical consumption, workforce participation, and debt and asset sales using data from a nationally representative health and morbidity survey in India for 2004 of nearly 74 thousand households. Propensity scores were used to match households containing a member diagnosed with cancer (i.e. cancer-affected households) to households with similar socioeconomic and demographic characteristics (controls). Our estimates are based on data from 1,645 households chosen through matching. Cancer-affected households experienced higher levels of outpatient visits and hospital admissions and increased out-of-pocket health expenditures per member, relative to controls. Cancer-affected households spent between Indian Rupees (INR) 66 and INR 85 more per member on healthcare over a 15-day reference period, than controls and additional expenditures (per member) incurred on inpatient care by cancer-affected households annually is equivalent to 36% to 44% of annual household expenditures of matched controls. Members without cancer in cancer-affected households used less health-care and spent less on healthcare. Overall, adult workforce participation rates were lower by between 2.4 and 3.2 percentage points compared to controls; whereas workforce participation rates among adult members without cancer were higher than in control households. Cancer-affected households also had significantly higher rates of borrowing and asset sales for financing outpatient care that were 3.3% to 4.0% higher compared to control households; and even higher for inpatient care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes how to select a methodology to target multidimensionally poor households, and how to update that targeting exercise periodically. We present this methodology in the context of discussions regarding the selection of a targeting methodology in India. In 1992, 1997, and 2002 the Indian government identified households that are below the poverty line (BPL) and in updating the 2002 methodology, alternative methods have been proposed and vigorously debated. A fourth BPL method was published and a corresponding Socio Economic Caste Census (SECC), implemented. Using the third National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), this paper illustrates how a BPL targeting method using SECC variables might be calibrated to a multidimensional poverty measure. This paper compares the fit between a benchmark measure of multidimensional poverty and several plausible targeting methods to determine which method(s) approximate it-as well as related measures-most closely. We find a ten-item binary scoring method, which uses variables already available in the SECC questionnaire, provides a strong proxy. The emphasis of this paper is to illustrate how a particular targeting method can be justified, rather than to advocate any particular solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: India, with a population of more than 1.21 billion, has the highest maternal mortality in the world (estimated to be 56000 in 2010); and adolescent (aged 15–19) mortality shares 9% of total maternal deaths. Addressing the maternity care needs of adolescents may have considerable ramifications for achieving the Millennium Development Goal (MDG)–5. This paper assesses the socioeconomic differentials in accessing full antenatal care and professional attendance at delivery by adolescent mothers (aged 15–19) in India during 1990–2006. Methods and Findings: Data from three rounds of the National Family Health Survey of India conducted during 1992–93, 1998–99, and 2005–06 were analyzed. The Cochran-Armitage and Chi-squared test for linear and non-linear time trends were applied, respectively, to understand the trend in the proportion of adolescent mothers utilizing select maternity care services during 1990–2006. Using pooled multivariate logistic regression models, the probability of select maternal healthcare utilization among women by key socioeconomic characteristics was appraised. After adjusting for potential socio-demographic and economic characteristics, the likelihood of adolescents accessing full antenatal care increased by only 4% from 1990 to 2006. However, the probability of adolescent women availing themselves of professional attendance at delivery increased by 79% during the same period. The study also highlights the desolate disparities in maternity care services among adolescents across the most and the least favoured groups. Conclusion: Maternal care interventions in India need focused programs for rural, uneducated, poor adolescent women so that they can avail themselves of measures to delay child bearing, and for better antenatal consultation and delivery care in case of pregnancy. This study strongly advocates the promotion of a comprehensive ‘adolescent scheme’ along the lines of ‘Continuum of Maternal, Newborn and Child health Care’ to address the unmet need of reproductive and maternal healthcare services among adolescent women in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Whether non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are diseases of poverty or affluence in low-and-middle income countries has been vigorously debated. Most analyses of NCDs have used self-reported data, which is biased by differential access to healthcare services between groups of different socioeconomic status (SES). We sought to compare self-reported diagnoses versus standardised measures of NCD prevalence across SES groups in India. Methods: We calculated age-adjusted prevalence rates of common NCDs from the Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health, a nationally representative cross-sectional survey. We compared self-reported diagnoses to standardized measures of disease for five NCDs. We calculated wealth-related and education-related disparities in NCD prevalence by calculating concentration index (C), which ranges from −1 to +1 (concentration of disease among lower and higher SES groups, respectively). Findings: NCD prevalence was higher (range 5.2 to 19.1%) for standardised measures than self-reported diagnoses (range 3.1 to 9.4%). Several NCDs were particularly concentrated among higher SES groups according to self-reported diagnoses (Csrd) but were concentrated either among lower SES groups or showed no strong socioeconomic gradient using standardized measures (Csm): age-standardised wealth-related C: angina Csrd 0.02 vs. Csm −0.17; asthma and lung diseases Csrd −0.05 vs. Csm −0.04 (age-standardised education-related Csrd 0.04 vs. Csm −0.05); vision problems Csrd 0.07 vs. Csm −0.05; depression Csrd 0.07 vs. Csm −0.13. Indicating similar trends of standardized measures detecting more cases among low SES, concentration of hypertension declined among higher SES (Csrd 0.19 vs. Csm 0.03). Conclusions: The socio-economic patterning of NCD prevalence differs markedly when assessed by standardized criteria versus self-reported diagnoses. NCDs in India are not necessarily diseases of affluence but also of poverty, indicating likely under-diagnosis and under-reporting of diseases among the poor. Standardized measures should be used, wherever feasible, to estimate the true prevalence of NCDs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay uses the seminal figure of Jawaharlal Nehru to interrogate the nature and representation of science in modern India. The problem posed by Nehruvian science--the conflict between (yet simultaneity of ) science as both universal phenomenon and local effect--lies at the heart of current debates about what science means for the non-West. The problematic of Nehruvian science can be accessed through Nehru's own speeches and writings, but also through the wider project of science with which he identified--critiquing colonialism, forging India's place in the modern world, marrying intellectual endeavor with practical nation building. The essay makes a case for looking at Nehruvian science as a way of structuring the problem of postcolonial science, particularly in relation to understanding the authority of science and its evaluation in terms of its capacity to deliver socioeconomic change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock rearing not only helps agriculture and production of manure, but also the production of milk and meat. After the first and second Green revolution, the importance of livestock in India goes beyond the function of food production. It is an important source of draught power, manure for crop production and fuel for domestic use. Thus, by minimizing use of non-renewable energy, livestock make a positive contribution to the environment. Although crops and livestock are interdependent to a large extent, the latter constitute an important mechanism for coping with the risks of crop failure. In land-scarce economies, livestock provide livelihood support in terms of income and employment generation to the millions of landless and small landholder. The present study also tries to investigate the role of livestock husbandry in the socio-economic development of an agricultural district of north India. The study reveals that Mahamaya Nagar district has witnessed considerable change in livestock sector. The role of livestock in providing food, livelihood and ensuring sustainable cropping system is evident. Livestock rearing is mostly practiced by the unprivileged and the deprived social groups and it gives employment to the rearers. Thus, the study reveals the importance of the livestock rearing and its impact upon the development of the Mahamaya Nagar district. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The nutritional aetiology of obesity remains unclear, especially with regard to the role of dairy products in developing countries. Objective: To examine whether milk/milk product consumption is associated with obesity and high waist circumference among adult Indians. Methods: Information on plain milk, tea, curd and buttermilk/lassi consumption assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire was obtained from the cross-sectional sib-pair designed Indian Migration Study (3698 men and 2659 women), conducted at four factory locations across north, central and south India. The anthropometric measures included were Body Mass Index (BMI) and Waist Circumference (WC). Mixed-effect logistic regression models were conducted to accommodate sib-pair design and adjust for potential confounders. Results: After controlling for potential confounders, the risk of being obese (BMI≥25 kg/m2) was lower among women (OR = 0.57;95%CI:0.43−0.76;p≤0.0001) and men (OR = 0.67;95%CI: 0.51−0.87;p = 0.005), and the risk of a high WC (men: >90 cm; women: >80 cm) was lower among men (OR = 0.71;95%CI:0.54−0.93;p = 0.005) and women (OR = 0.79;95%CI:0.59−1.05;p>0.05) who consume ≥1 portions of plain milk daily than those who do not consume any milk. The inverse association between daily plain milk consumption and obesity was also confirmed in sibling-pair analyses. Daily tea consumption of ≥1 portion was associated with obesity (OR = 1.51;95%CI:1.00−2.25;p>0.050) and high WC (OR = 1.65;95%CI:1.08−2.51;p>0.019) among men but not among women but there was no strong evidence of association of curd and buttermilk/lassi consumption with obesity and high waist circumference among both men and women. Conclusions: The independent, inverse association of daily plain milk consumption with the risk of being obese suggests that high plain milk intake may lower the risk of obesity in adult Indians. However, this is an observational finding and uncontrolled confounding cannot be excluded as an explanation for the association. Therefore, confirmatory studies are needed to clarify this relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses his vision of clinical research ethics in the context of India's socio-economic and political environment. He describes the country's healthcare, research training and ethics regulation and industry scenario. He cites a study showing Indians' awareness of and attitude toward clinical research and the factors hampering their participation in clinical trials. He recommends ways to achieve his vision, including building society's trust and better information dissemination.

The present paper is an endeavour to examine and emphasize the issues of psycho-social circumstances of Indian Muslim women in sociological perspective with special indication to their socio-economic, employment, educational attainment, rights and privileges, hindrances and restrictions, role and status as well as their multifarious problems from socio-religious stance at empirical context. Emphasis is also given to recognize their social position in textual and contextual spheres i.e., Islam and Muslim society. The facts and findings presented in this research paper are based on both the secondary sources and primary sources of data. Various relevant in print research references are consulted besides authors' empirical observations on the community concerned at the micro as well as macro level to produce this paper. The abovementioned issues are empirically examined and discussed based on data available and collected and put the facts alongside in an organized manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progress of a country comes at a price. With the booming economy, Indians have now more food stuff to eat. Most of the time what we eat and give our children to eat is not healthy. Consequently, a lot more Indian children are becoming overweight like their western counterparts. Approximately 22 million children, under fi ve years of age, are overweight across the world. The worst part is that we do not know for sure what proportion of Indian children are overweight. Different studies in India have shown a wide range of prevalence of childhood obesity. Recent studies have proved beyond doubt that this impending epidemic is not only restricted to the elite children in our country, but has crossed the socioeconomic divide and childhood obesity is on the rise even among the less privileged ones. Recent findings have shown that the propensity to become obese is evident as early as someone is in the uterus. Obesity is the root cause of many chronic diseases. The best way to tackle the obesity epidemic is to lessen its burden in children. The earlier we intervene in a person's life; the better will be the results, not only for the individual, but for the country as well. Population-based prevention strategies are the best to tackle this epidemic. It seeks to change the social norm by encouraging an increase in healthy behaviour and a reduction in health risk. They involve shifting the responsibility of tackling health risks from the individual to governments and health ministries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To determine correlation of multiple parameters of socioeconomic status with cardiovascular risk factors in India. Methods: The study was performed at eleven cities using cluster sampling. Subjects (n = 6198, men 3426, women 2772) were evaluated for socioeconomic, demographic, biophysical and biochemical factors. They were classified into low, medium and high socioeconomic groups based on educational level (<10, 10-15 and >15yr formal education), occupational class and socioeconomic scale. Risk factor differences were evaluated using multivariate logistic regression. Results: Age-adjusted prevalence (%) of risk factors in men and women was overweight or obesity in 41.1 and 45.2, obesity 8.3 and 15.8, high waist circumference 35.7 and 57.5, high waist-hip ratio 69.0 and 83.8, hypertension 32.5 and 30.4, hypercholesterolemia 24.8 and 25.3, low HDL cholesterol 34.1 and 35.1, high triglycerides 41.2 and 31.5, diabetes 16.7 and 14.4 and metabolic syndrome in 32.2 and 40.4 percent. Lifestyle factors were smoking 12.0 and 0.5, other tobacco use 12.7 and 6.3, high fat intake 51.2 and 48.2, low fruits/vegetables intake 25.3 and 28.9, and physical inactivity in 38.8 and 46.1%. Prevalence of > = 3 risk factors was significantly greater in low (28.0%) vs. middle (23.9%) or high (22.1%) educational groups (p<0.01). In low vs. high educational groups there was greater prevalence of high waist-hip ratio (odds ratio 2.18, confidence interval 1.65-2.71), low HDL cholesterol (1.51, 1.27-1.80), hypertriglyceridemia (1.16, 0.99-1.37), smoking/ tobacco use (3.27, 2.66-4.01), and low physical activity (1.15, 0.97-1.37); and lower prevalence of high fat diet (0.47, 0.38-0.57),overweight/obesity (0.68, 0.58-0.80) and hypercholesterolemia (0.79, 0.66-0.94). Similar associations were observed with occupational and socioeconomic status. Conclusions: Low educational, occupational and socioeconomic status Asian Indians have greater prevalence of truncal obesity, low HDL cholesterol, hypertriglyceridemia, smoking or tobacco use and low physical activity and clustering of > = 3 major cardiovascular risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been conventionally believed that whereas socioeconomic rights are critical for human survival with dignity, these fall within the domain of the executive and not of courts and the law. The recent experience in India's Supreme Court has demonstrated that these rights - and in particular the right to food - can be both mandated and enforced by courts. In a landmark petition demanding a legally enforceable right to food, the court has converted food and social protection programmes into legal rights, expanded and universalised these rights, and created an independent mechanism for the enforcement of these rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Bihar, the poorest state in India, concentrates most of the visceral leishmaniasis (VL) cases in the country. A large proportion of the poor rural communities where VL is endemic are marginalized by their socio-economic status, intrinsically related to the caste system. In this study, we evaluated whether people from low socio-economic strata had difficulties accessing VL treatment in Bihar. As a secondary outcome, we evaluated whether people delaying their VL treatment had poorer clinical indicators at admission. Methods Data on 2187 patients with VL treated by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) in Vaishali district from July 2007 to December 2008 were analysed. Patients who reported having onset of symptoms ≥8 weeks before admission were defined as 'late presenters'. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate whether low castes had higher risk to be 'late presenters' compared to the rest of castes and whether 'late presenters' had poorer indicators at admission (i.e. haemoglobin level, spleen size). Results After adjusting for age, gender and distance to VL treatment facility, Mushars (the lowest caste in Bihar) had twice the odds to be 'late presenters' compared to the rest of castes (OR 2.05, 95% CI: 1.24-2.38). Subjects that had VL symptoms for ≥8 weeks had a larger spleen and lower haemoglobin level than those that were treated earlier. Conclusion Low castes have poor access to VL treatment in Bihar, and late presenters have poorer clinical indicators at admission. These findings have implications at individual and community levels and should stimulate targeted VL control programmes to ensure that marginalized communities in Bihar are properly treated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives We conducted a case study of an urban immunization outreach strategy to determine the feasibility of the intervention and to measure administrative immunization coverage outcomes. Methods A multipronged strategy for improving immunization coverage in Urban Patna, India, was implemented for 1 year (2009/2010). The strategy was designed to increase immunization sites, shift human resources, plan logistics, improve community mobilization, provide supervision, strengthen data flow and implement special vaccination drives. Results Over 1 year, the coverage of all primary vaccines of the Universal Immunization Program improved by over 100%. Conclusion Coverage can be rapidly improved through outreach immunization in low socioeconomic areas if existing opportunities are carefully utilized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Education and its relationship with livelihood, quality of life, increased earning and social mobility are well recognized for developing countries. Education is an important factor for inequality reduction and for overall development. In India many reforms in the field of primary public schools in forms of curriculum, coverage, training and infrastructure have been initiated by the government in the last two decades. Today government provides funds to schools. These schools then provide education to students. The voucher system provides funding to the student who then approaches any of the schools for education. A voucher is only a form of financial assistance. Voucher programs have been implemented in different forms in countries as diverse as Sweden, Chile, Columbia, Holland, USA, UK, New Zealand, Bangladesh, Czech Republic and Cote d'Irovie. There has been an increase in the quantitative indicators like parental satisfaction increase of test scores and learning outcomes of students, improved performance of public schools and increase in enrolment etc. The present attempts to improve quality of Public Schools Via-a Vis Private Schools are not delivering significant result as quality of public schools and for that matter any public service depends, among other factors significantly pressure and effective demand of the people. In this paper, privatization is not discussed directly except in reference to vouchers. Rather it is contended that privatization with poor quality public schools is increasing SES (Socio- Economic Segration). The paper examines the efficacy of vouchers as an instrument to reduce SES and to ensure equitable access to poor. This is the issue, which is applicable to whole country; the analysis is done from national point of view also. First discuss Chile with Argentina to see how SES can occur in any dual system. The paper examines working of selective voucher system in Colombia to see how it was devised to handle SES and to what extent it has succeeded in improving students performance. Lastly, the problem has been discussed at national level to bring out the seriousness of the issue. Gujarat is discussed specifically for contextual application for vouchers. The need to concentrate on the larger issues of removal inequality and poverty need not be reemphasized. Poor deserves better deal and equal partnership in development process. The presented model can be an important step in that direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges that affect all the natural ecosystems of the world. Due to the fragile environment, mountain ecosystems are the most vulnerable to the impact of climate change. Mountains have been recognized as important ecosystems by the Convention on Biological Diversity. Arunachal Pradesh is a predominantly mountainous state and is home to many endemic, endangered and threatened species, as well as to the indigenous people, who are dependent on its biological resources. Climate change will not only threaten the biodiversity, but also affect the socio-economic condition of the indigenous people of the state. Various activities like habitat loss, deforestation, clear felling and overexploitation amplify the impact of climate change on biodiversity. Therefore, some management initiatives should be taken for mitigating climate change. Also, more research work needs to be carried out in Arunachal Pradesh to monitor the trend of climate change and susceptibility of biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Demographic, socioeconomic and cultural changes in India have increased longevity, delayed childbearing, decreased parity and resulted in a more westernised lifestyle, contributing to the increasing burden of cancer, especially among women.Methods: We evaluated secular changes in the incidence of breast, cervical and ovarian cancer in Mumbai women aged 30-64 between 1976 and 2005. Age-standardised incidence rates were calculated and presented by site and calendar period. An age-period-cohort (APC) analysis quantified recent time trends and the significance of birth cohort and calendar period effects. The estimated annual percent change (EAPC) was obtained from the drift parameter, expressing the linear time trend common to both calendar period and birth cohort.Results: Over the 30-year study period, the age-standardised rates significantly increased for breast cancer (EAPC: 1.1% (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.0, 1.3)), significantly decreased for cervical cancer (EAPC: -1.8% (95% CI: -2.0, -1.6)) and there was no statistically significant change for ovarian cancer (EAPC: 0.3% (95% CI: -0.1, 0.6)). For breast and cervical cancer, the best-fitting model was the APC model.Conclusions: The rates of breast, cervical and ovarian cancer remain low in comparison with western countries, and the divergent trends of breast (increasing) and cervical cancer (decreasing) in Mumbai were similar to those observed in several other Asian countries. The changing risk profile in successive generations - improved education, higher socioeconomic status, later age at marriage and at first child, and lower parity - may in combination partially explain the diverging generational changes in breast and cervical cancer in Mumbai in the last decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & objectives: There are very few studies describing the pattern of physical activity of children in India. This study was carried out to document patterns of physical activity in south Indian school children aged 8 to 15 yr and examine changes over a one year period. Methods: Physical activity was assessed using interviewer-administered questionnaires at baseline (n=256) and at follow up (n=203) in 2006 and 2007. Frequency and duration of each activity was recorded and metabolic equivalents (MET) assigned. Sedentary activity included activities with MET < 1.5, and moderate-to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA) with >3.0. For each activity, daily duration, intensity (MET), and the product of the two (MET-minutes) were computed. Children were categorized by age group, gender and socio-economic status. Height and weight were measured. Results: At baseline, sedentary activity was higher in children aged >11 yr, while intensity of MVPA was higher in boys than girls. Over one year, physical activity at school significantly decreased (P

The article examines the intersection of health and borders across time and cultures in China, India and the Indian Ocean Region. It looks at health from a social science perspective through historical, socio-economic, and cultural approaches. It shows concerned with the health inequities across and within national borders, due to economic imperatives, changing technologies and environments.

India's foreign policy since its Independence on 15 August 1947, had been one of cooperation and conciliation and not confrontation. This could be well amplified when the Pakistan infiltrators entered in to the Indian territory in 1948, the then Prime Minister urged that matter be referred to the newly formed World Body, the United Nations. If one goes through history, one would find that all the three wars between India and Pakistan was initiated by Pakistan and India had to defend herself. Similar situation arose when China unilaterally broke the Pancha Sheel accord agreed between Indian and China and aggressed the territory. The article makes a modest attempt to trace India's policy towards the near east or South East nations. It traces the historical and cultural links between India and South East Asian nations and ultimate consolidation of India's 'Look East Policy'. This article takes in to consideration the economic and strategic interests of the region. It is hoped that this article would enable the readers to look in to and understand India's policy towards South East Asian nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & objectives: Even though Kerala State is well-known for its egalitarian policies in terms of healthcare, redistributive actions and social reforms, and its health indicators close to those of high-resource countries despite a poor per-capita income, it is not clear whether socio-economic disparities in terms of life expectancy are observed. This study was therefore carried out to study the impact of socioeconomic level on life expectancy in individuals living in Kerala. Methods: A cohort of 1,67,331 participants aged 34 years and above in Thiruvananthapuram district, having completed a lifestyle questionnaire at baseline in 1995, was followed up for mortality and cause of death until 2005. Survival estimates were based on the participants' vital status and death rates were calculated separately for men and women and for several socio-economic factors, stratified by age. Results: At 40 years, men and women were expected to live another 34 and 37 years, respectively. Life expectancy varied across the participants' different socio-economic categories: those from high income households with good housing conditions, materially privileged households and small households, had a 2-3 years longer life expectancy as compared to the deprived persons. Also, those who went to college lived longer than the illiterates. The gaps between categories were wider in men than in women. Interpretation & conclusions: Socio-economic disparity in longevity was observed: wealthy people from Kerala State presented a longer life expectancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is an increasing trend of risk-taking behaviour among adolescents in India but little empirical evidence exists on its determinants. Aims: We examined the effect of socio economic characteristics and living arrangement on adolescent's risk-taking behavior. Methods: Cross sectional data of 1,11,077 adolescents aged 10-19 years included in India's second National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2,1998-99) were analysed. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression was used for analysis. Risk-taking behavior was assessed in terms of tobacco chewing, tobacco smoking, and alcohol drinking and a combination of these three as 'any risk behaviour'. Results: Prevalence of chewing, smoking and drinking among adolescents was 3.3%, 1.2% and 0.9% respectively. Adolescents who had dropped out of school (OR:6.6;95%CI:6.08-7.20) or had never been to school (OR:7.32;95%CI:6.65-8.06), adolescent living in a female headed household (OR:1.19;95%CI:1.07-1.33), or in households where more than three related adults stayed (OR:1.52;95%CI:1.37-1.68) were more likely to indulge in any risk-taking behavior than their counterparts. Female adolescents, belonging to scheduled tribe, other backward class and other category (ORs ranges from 0.79 to 0.89) and belonging to household with a medium or higher standard of living (ORs ranges from 0.45 to 0.87) were less likely to indulge in any risk-taking behavior. Conclusion: The findings of this study calls for a comprehensive prevention and control programs for all adolescents in general and adolescent never been to school or dropped out from school in particular for addressing risk-taking behavior in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on infant and child mortality in rural areas of India. We construct a flexible duration model, which allows for frailty at multiple levels and interactions between the child's age and individual, socioeconomic, and environmental characteristics. The model is estimated using the Indian National Family and Health Survey 1998/1999. The estimation results show that socioeconomic and environmental characteristics have significantly different impacts on mortality rates at different ages. These are particularly important immediately after birth. The parameter estimates indicate that child mortality can be reduced substantially, particularly by improving the education of women, providing safe water, and reducing indoor air pollution caused by dirty cooking fuels. Finally, we still found substantial differences in mortality rates between states, which are associated with differences in schooling expenditures, female immunization, and poverty rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The desire for male children is prevalent in India, where son preference has been shown to affect fertility behavior and intrahousehold allocation of resources. Economic theory predicts less gender discrimination in wealthier households, but demographers and sociologists have argued that wealth can exacerbate bias in the Indian context. I argue that these apparently conflicting theories can be reconciled and simultaneously tested if one considers that they are based on two different notions of wealth: one related to resource constraints (absolute wealth), and the other to notions of local status (relative wealth). Using cross-sectional data from the 1998-1999 and 2005-2006 National Family and Health Surveys, I construct measures of absolute and relative wealth by using principal components analysis. A series of statistical models of son preference is estimated by using multilevel methods. Results consistently show that higher absolute wealth is strongly associated with lower son preference, and the effect is 20%-40% stronger when the household's community-specific wealth score is included in the regression. Coefficients on relative wealth are positive and significant although lower in magnitude. Results are robust to using different samples, alternative groupings of households in local areas, different estimation methods, and alternative dependent variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The dimensions along which mortality is patterned in India remains unclear. We examined the specific contribution of social castes, household income, assets, and monthly per capita consumption to mortality differentials in India. Methods and Findings: Cross-sectional data on 217 363 individuals from 41 554 households from the 2004-2005 India Human Development Survey was analyzed using multiple logistic regressions. Mortality differentials across social castes were attenuated after adjusting for household economic factors such as income and assets. Individuals living in the lowest income and assets quintiles had an increased risk of mortality with odds ratio (OR) of 1.66 (95% CI = 1.23-2.24) in the bottom income quintile and OR of 2.94 (95% CI = 1.66-5.22) in the bottom asset quintile. Counter-intuitively, individuals living in households with lowest monthly consumption per capita had significantly lower probability of death (OR = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.20-0.38). Conclusions: Mortality burden in India is largely patterned on economic dimensions as opposed to caste dimensions, though caste may play an important role in predicting economic opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: India experienced a rapid economic boom between 1991 and 2007. However, this economic growth has not translated into improved nutritional status among young Indian children. Additionally, no study has assessed the trends in social disparities in childhood undernutrition in the Indian context. We examined the trends in social disparities in underweight and stunting among Indian children aged less than three years using nationally representative data. Methods: We analyzed data from the three cross-sectional rounds of National Family Health Survey of India from 1992, 1998 and 2005. The social factors of interest were: household wealth, maternal education, caste, and urban residence. Using multilevel modeling to account for the nested structure and clustering of data, we fit multivariable logistic regression models to quantify the association between the social factors and the binary outcome variables. The final models additionally included age, gender, birth order of child, religion, and age of mother. We analyzed the trend by testing for interaction of the social factor and survey year in a dataset pooled from all three surveys. Results: While the overall prevalence rates of undernutrition among Indian children less than three decreased over the 1992-2005 period, social disparities in undernutrition over these 14 years either widened or stayed the same. The absolute rates of undernutrition decreased for everyone regardless of their social status. The disparities by household wealth were greater than the disparities by maternal education. There were no disparities in undernutrition by caste, gender or rural residence. Conclusions: There was a steady decrease in the rates of stunting in the 1992-2005 period, while the decline in underweight was greater between 1992 and 1998 than between 1998 and 2005. Social disparities in childhood undernutrition in India either widened or stayed the same during a time of major economic growth. While the advantages of economic growth might be reaching everyone, children from better-off households, with better educated mothers appear to have benefited to a greater extent than less privileged children. The high rates of undernutrition (even among the socially advantaged groups) and the persistent social disparities need to be addressed in an urgent and comprehensive manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The primary objective was to study the epidemiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) positive tribal patients, and the secondary objective was to study the associated comorbidities in a tertiary care hospital in the tribal (Bastar) region of Chhattisgarh, India, between December 2006 and November 2008, and their relation to CD4 counts. Materials and Methods: In this study 90 tribal HIV positive subjects were enrolled. Information on demographics, that is, weight, height, age, educational status, sex, clinical finding, and laboratory parameters (CD4 counts) were noted. Results: Among 90 HIV patients, 54 (60%) were males and 36 (40%) were females. Among these, most patients, 37 (41.1%), were in the age group of 30 to 39 years. Among these patients, 79.56% belonged to the lower socioeconomic status, whereas, only 1.45% were from a high socioeconomic status. The largest group was made up of drivers (32.2%), with the second largest group being housewives (27.7%) and laborers (17.7%), respectively. A majority of the patients had a low education, 35.5% were educated only up to the fifth standard and 31.8% up to high school, while 18.8% were illiterate. The predominant mode of transmission was heterosexual contact (78.8%), only one patient (1.1%) was infected through transfusion of infected blood, five (5.5%) patients acquired infection via vertical (mother to child) transmission, and in 13 patients the transmission history was not clear. Conclusion: There was a high frequency of behavioral risk factors, together with unawareness, and very little health infrastructure, thus creating an impending risk for the rapid spread of HIV/AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]