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In assessing the current and future role of universities in the nation-states in which they are chartered and funded, it is useful to ask, When are universities societal leaders as societal and constructive change agents, and when are they followers, reinforcing the existing political order? As discussed in the book, "Neo-Nationalism and Universities: Populists, Autocrats and the Future of Higher Education," the national political history and contemporary context is the dominant factor for shaping the leadership or follower role of universities -- what I call a political determinist interpretation. We often think of contemporary universities, and their students and faculty, as catalysts for societal progress -- the Free Speech and Civil Rights movements, Vietnam War protests, the anti-Apartheid movement, Tiananmen Square, and more recently the pro-democracy demonstrations in Hong Kong. Universities can be, and have been, the locus for not only educating enlightened future leaders, but also for opposing oppression and dictatorships. But universities have also proved over their history to be tools for serving the privileged, and reinforcing the social class divisions of a society; they also have been factories for errant theories that reinforce the worst of nationalist tendencies. Universities are both unique environments for educating and mentoring free thinkers, entrepreneurs, and citizens with, for example, a devotion to social change, or for creating conformists -- or all of the above. How might we assess whether universities are followers or leaders in their societies? This essay considers this question, offering a framework for evaluating the follower or leader role, and with particular attention to the emergence or, in some cases, re-emergence of neonationalist leaders and autocratic governments.

Building from findings showing that undergraduate computer science continues to have the highest attrition rates proportionally for women within postsecondary science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines--a phenomenon that defies basic social equity goals in a high status field--this paper seeks to better understand how student experiences in local higher educational settings can influence persistence decisions, particulary for women. Updating and extending work in computer science, our qualitative analysis interprets this wider problem, first, by applying a field theory of practice to more clearly theorize how varying social realms and positions influence student experiences and feelings of belonging. Second, we use an in-depth comparative case study of two introductory or "gateway" computer science courses in two universities to detail how classroom, departmental, institutional, and extra-institutional characteristics, including instructional practices and popular stereotypes, may shape action for students in specific higher educational contexts. While previous studies have highlighted the significance of broader computer science cultural values, self-efficacy beliefs, and experience with computers to women's attrition, our findings provide a new theoretical lens to conceptualize the complex ways these and other factors connect in students' daily lives--through preening male students or "brogrammers," authentic or collaborative learning experiences, and uncomfortable social interactions due in part to women's underrepresentation. Our findings also point to differences in local interactions and social positions that can begin to mediate these factors, including opportunities in class to ask questions, collaborate, and work on real-world example problems; fuller access to instructors; and departmental and campus infrastructural supports that contribute to a more meaningful sense of belonging in computer science.

This paper is a reflection, on the 10th anniversary of a great work of art. After reviewing some of the global impacts of the Wachowski brothers' highly acclaimed action sci-fi film "The Matrix" (1999-2003), I present a case for the use of the film in critical theory and pedagogy and it's apparent un-interest to such theorists and pedagogues. Based on my study of the film in my dissertation (Curriculum and Instruction, UBC) and in the years following, a case is made for the emancipatory "unplugging" potential of "The Matrix" narrative for 21st century curriculum work and activism. Cautions are raised about "waking up" for oneself and those we assist to do so. (Contains 39 endnotes.)

The purpose of the research was to collect primary school pupils' perceptions of, and their views on learning about, poverty and development, in order to better understand the factors that influence and impact on their knowledge, understanding and perspectives. The main research questions were: (1) How do young people conceptualise and make sense of global poverty? (2) How do young people think they can respond to global poverty? and (3) In what contexts do young people think they learn about global poverty? Four schools were selected from the South West region using a purposeful sampling strategy. Data was collected through focus groups with Key Stage 2 pupils in groups of six to eight, of mixed ability and gender. Images were used as a prompt for discussion. The research found that: (1) The meaning of poverty for pupils is very similar across schools, and across year groups. Pupils characterise poverty as lack of basic needs: money, shelter, education and access to resources. Natural disasters were also frequently cited as a cause of poverty; (2) The complexity of the definition offered does not seem to be age related but linked to the local context of the school; (3) The causes of poverty are seen as being internal to countries. Causes of poverty include war, famine and natural disasters. Pupils consider people to be poor due to lack of money and access to basic needs, such as food, water and shelter. These ideas were explicitly underpinned by a charity mentality by a number of pupils, reinforced by the belief that people are poor due to natural disasters; (4) There is also evidence in this focus group of pupils feeling outrage at the inequality between rich and poor; (5) Pupil comments highlight the way in which pupils develop a back story to the image in order to support their views of why this image represents poverty, such as not having any parents, having to work hard to achieve things that 'we' take for granted, and not having enough food; and (6) For the majority of pupils, taking action is strongly associated with charitable giving.

Although it is true that education is an investment, there are risks associated with relying too strongly on the metaphor of education as investment. The main problems with the investment metaphor are as follows: (1) it pushes aside the notion of education as a consumption good that people want for its own sake; (2) the human capital approach can cast a shadow over forms of learning unable to prove adequately that they are a profitable investment; and (3) the measures used for input and output in analyses of the relationship between education and economic performance are problematic. Education should be viewed not as an investment in human capital but rather as an investment in social capital. It may be argued that, rather than fostering a system of lifelong learning, the expansion of higher education (especially initial higher education) has merely concentrated resources on the initial phase of education at the expense of later opportunities, which is neither an effective nor a socially equitable way of allocating resources. To get closer to a learning society, the current preoccupation with the supply of education must be replaced with closer attention to the factors influencing the demand for education. (Contains 11 references.) (MN)

This handbook explores Europe's nonprofit nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that have been working for change in South Africa and now are engaged, or planning to engage in the economic, social, and human resource development of a democratic South Africa. The purposes of the document are to: (1) illuminate for both donor agencies and groups seeking support the complex framework in which the NGOs operate; (2) clarify sources of financial, technical, and informational assistance for sustainable development programs in South Africa; and (3) draw lessons from development policies and experiences taken from the narrative. After an introduction, the report presents the institutional framework, describing both the intergovernmental organizations and the international nongovernmental networks of which it consists. This is followed by the core section of the document, a country-by-country description of European NGOs working with or for South Africa, arranged alphabetically by country from Belgium through the United Kingdom. A concluding section highlights recurring development issues and implications. An attached glossary provides a list of abbreviations for the NGOs discussed in the text. (LBG)

This bibliographic essay is designed to help the student begin to investigate both context and content of contemporary Spanish society, government, politics, and economy. Coverage is selective because the focus is on sources in English, although where important subject matter gaps exist, Spanish sources are provided. Many of these are available in research libraries. Others have to be secured from their publishers, such as agencies of the government of Spain. The investigator of Spanish institutions will find that understanding the nature of this culture will fall into three broad categories of analysis: (1) broad, retrospective and introspective historical analyses of history, society, politics, and economics, that reach back from pre-Roman influences and travel into the 20th century: (2) works that emphasize the forces, particularly political, from the late 19th century on that led up to the civil war and include the Franco regime; and (3) the period of post-Franco transformation and the current building of Spain as a democratic constitutional monarchy. The first two traditions are primarily historical, the third is rich in analysis. Because democracy in Spain developed through a peaceful transformation to democracy by negotiation among its major interests, the transformation period fundamentally altered Spain's governmental and economic institutions, laid to rest many political cleavages that had been alive for nearly 200 years, and changed Spanish society. The resources described are divided into sections of general works, political system, government and policy making, economy, society and culture. Contains 124 references. (DK)

This study, part of OECD/CERI's project on Measuring the Social Outcomes of Learning, investigates the relationship between educational attainment and political participation in Austria. First, a model based on various theoretical considerations is introduced. This incorporates direct educational effects as well as indirect effects that occur through material resources, social capital, civic orientations and values. Using a multivariate analytical approach the model is applied to the 2002 European Social Survey. Three forms of political participation are distinguished, namely voting, elite-directed and elite-challenging activities. Educational attainment is found to have significant effects on all three types but the strongest impact is on elite-challenging activities. The latter includes forms of political action such as signing petitions and buying or boycotting certain products which are increasingly accepted as a legitimate way to express one's political preferences. Most of the effects of education arise through intermediate variables, including social capital (especially affiliation with non-political organisations), civic orientations (political interest as well as internal and external efficacy) and individual (postmaterialist) values. The effect of education on elite-directed activity operated primarily through organisational affiliation, as well as internal and external efficacy. In contrast, the effect of education on elite-challenging activity seems to be fostered via social environments that combine high levels of political interest, interpersonal trust, postmaterialist values and a certain degree of scepticism against political institutions. The paper concludes with suggestions for policy and research. (Contains 11 footnotes, 2 figures and 12 tables.)

This collection of papers illustrates that the principal changes taking place in the socialist countries in the field of education find their real reflection in the social position and creative work of the teacher. Papers, reports, and reviews in this collection include: (1) "Topical Tasks of Initial Teacher Training" (V. Brichta); (2) "The Experience of the Universities of Education in the USSR with Initial Teacher Training and the Communist Education Provided to the Up-And-Coming Generation" (V. K. Rozov); (3) "Ideological Aspects of Formative Teaching in the Work of the Socialist Teacher" (J. Fiser); (4) "The Tasks and Problems of Raising the Ideological Theoretical Standard and the Effectiveness of Practical Educational Work during the Training in the Theory of Education" (H. Lehman); (5) "The Shaping of Teacher Personality at the Faculties of the Social Sciences with Respect to the Teacher's Educational Work in School in the Developed Socialist Society" (M. M. Zagorulko); (6) "The Scientific-Technical Revolution and the Training Provided to Experts with University Education in the Natural Sciences" (A. Vitanov); (7) "The Main Tasks of Raising the Qualification Standards of the Educational Personnel in the Rumanian Socialist Republic" (V. Bunescu); and (8) "Research of Educational Skills at the Malmo School of Education" (S. Kolacek). (JD)

This background paper was developed for the Community Services Administration (CSA) in order to provide background information concerning welfare reform. It examines possible public assistance strategies, such as the following: (1) broad-based cash transfer (negative income tax, wage rate subsidies, demogrants, and family allowances), (2) categorical cash transfers, (3) in-kind (consumption) transfers (food stamps), and (4) composite programs. The paper also discusses various normative, economic, social, administrative, and political issues raised by the welfare reform controversy. One issue discussed at length, is that of work incentives and their importance, especially in terms of their relevance in the redesign of America's public assistance system. The potential role of the Community Services Administration in welfare reform is also analyzed. A selective bibliography on welfare reform is included. (Author/AM)

A theoretical framework for evaluating the twenty-five year experience of social reform groups and law reform lawyers is presented in this paper. Law reform organizations participate in activities that have common, underlying themes. For instance, in most cases the lawyers want more of society's goods for the clients. In order to evaluate whether law reform activities are successful or not, five variables of a theory that would explain success in reform group law and reform activities are identified. Among these are the following two: (1) the characteristics of social reform groups, and (2) the distribution of the benefits and costs of social reform group activity. A series of case studies are provided in order to illustrate a different type of social reform legal activity. They were selected from four principal areas of law reform activity: environmental litigation, consumer issues, civil rights, and welfare. The theory presented predicts where law reform activity on behalf of social reform groups is less likely to be successful. (Author/AM)

Some of the public policy problems currently facing the United States, which have been created by a reawakening to the real multiethnic character of society, are explored and developed in great detail in this paper. The analysis is confined to domestic affairs, but the significant impact of foreign affairs on ethnic group identity and intergroup relations in America is stated. A listing of central issues dealt with include the following: (1) quota and affirmative action--the most dramatic and most far-reaching in its implications; (2) ethnic studies--with the current rising demand of white ethnic groups to be included in the curriculum revision, there is real confusion among educators as to how to respond to the new surges and militancy that have arisen; (3) bilingual education--Spanish speaking groups have long perceived bilingualism as a key to their survival, and Chinese demands are currently litigating in the Supreme Court; (4) government reorganization--overlooked in the past is that there is no plan for the reorganization of municipal power which does not affect ethnic group relations quite dramatically; (5) racism--it has the most devasting consequences on intergroup relations in America; and (6) group identity--it has extensive public policy ramifications and is seen as deserving serious attention. (Author/AM)

The effects of participation as a salaried professional in a reform oriented organization on the participants' subsequent career is considered in this paper and studied in the context of the OEO sponsored Legal Services Program. Because of the paucity of literature on the consequences of participation in reform organizations, a related literature, that of the consequences of participation in the student movement of the sixties, is drawn on for insight and is also critically examined. A comparison of the subsequent careers of 228 lawyers involved in the program in 1967 to those of 981 other lawyers who were practicing law in 1967 indicates that program participation has an important effect on both the distribution of professional services and the rendering of reform oriented free or reduced fee work. The explanations offered stress the importance of job market factors, in contrast to previous work which has suggested that the socialization is the sole or primary means through which such effects occur. A further difference from previous work is the consideration of the effects of variation in experience in the organization-a topic which is briefly discussed. (Author/AM)

Popular theatre that speaks to the common man in his own language and deals with directly relevant problems can be an effective adult education tool in the process Paulo Freire calls conscientization--a process aiming to radically transform social reality and improve people's lives. It can also serve as a medium for participatory research. Popular theatre offers a methodology for massive scale application which is manageable by village-level animateurs because (1) it can create awareness of people's own resources and mobilize them; (2) it provides continuity in definition, analysis, and solution of community problems; (4) as entertainment, it attracts and holds interest; (5) the researcher is a committed participant and learner--not a detached outsider; (6) as collective expression, it fosters cooperative thinking and action. Important features include the discussion after every performance, when people share ideas and identify problems, and participation, since everyone can manage theatre, given a predetermined plot line for dialog improvisation; actors are already familiar with issues and situations. Furthermore, this already familiar medium defuses feelings of educational inferiority arising from social prejudice or illiteracy. Adult educators in Botswana have used popular theatre in community education campaigns, resettlement education, Freirean literacy work using theatrical story-telling instead of pictures, and as part of extension work in choosing appropriate technology for rural development. Descriptions of these four examples are included in the paper as each moved through problem identification to action while demonstrating popular theatre's role in social transformation programs. (CP)

In considering whether subcultural values were associated with violence, it was critical to determine both the precise content of such values and the way in which the subculture interacts with structural forces to affect the level of violence. Based on interview and observational materials, this qualitative study examined the role of "machismo" and the incidence of gang violence in the Chicano "barrios" of East Los Angeles, under two structural circumstances--the more common state of disenfranchisement and the conditions of the late 1960s and early 1970s in which a strong locally based political movement existed. More than 25 open-ended interviews were conducted with Chicano males, aged 15-30, who lived in one of the East Los Angeles barrios and who currently participated or had participated extensively in gang activity. For all the Chicanos interviewed, "machismo" meant "having courage", "not backing down", or "being ready to fight". However, violence in itself was not directly a "macho" trait. Estrangement fostered a strong identity with the peer group in the barrio, because the peer group was the most readily available source of identity. This resulted in a strong sense of turf, which in turn greatly increased the potential for conflict and thus for violence. The change in group identity and in the incidence of violence occurred in the period from late 1967 to early 1972, when a strong locally based political movement succeeded in greatly reducing the level of estrangement. (NQ)

Designed to show that highly participatory, engaging, entertaining, and locally understandable communication forms can be used not only to liberate but also to domesticate, this paper presents case studies of several nonformal education projects in Botswana that attempted to follow the approach of Paulo Freire by using popular theatre to encourage participation, raise issues, foster discussion, and promote collective action. Topics include "Laedza Batanani," the first experiment using theater for nonformal education in Botswana; popular theatre and resettlement education; popular theater and Freirian literacy work; and participatory research, puppetry, and appropriate technology. A systematic analysis of the issues involved clarifies earlier writing on the subject which failed to portray some of the key contradictions in this work and tended to mystify the popular base of this activity. Focus is on the pseudo-participatory nature of the program; the involvement of the villagers as actors, audience, and discussion members without allowing popular control over the process; and the direction of change. The dual potential of popular theatre is clarified--i.e., its capacity for authentic popular expression and raising critical class consciousness, and/or for disseminating dominant class ideas and inducing acceptance of the status quo. Fourteen references are listed. (LMM)