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The linear-envelope peak (LEP) of surface EMG signal is widely used in gait analysis to characterize muscular activity, especially in clinics. This study is designed to evaluate LEP accuracy in identifying muscular activation and assessing activation timing during walking. Surface EMG signals from gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and tibialis anterior (TA) were analyzed in 100 strides per subject (31 healthy subjects) during ground walking. Signals were full-wave rectified and low-pass filtered (cut-off frequency=5 Hz) to extract the linear envelope. LEP accuracy in identifying muscle activations and the associated error in peak detection were assessed by direct comparison with a reference method based on wavelet transform. LEP accuracy in identifying the timing of higher signalenergy levels was also assessed, increasing the reference-algorithm selectivity. The detection error (percentage number of times when LEP falls outside the correspondent reference activation interval) is close to zero. Detection error increases up to 70% for intervals including only signal energy higher than 90% of energy peak. Mean absolute error (MAE, the absolute value of the distance between LEP timing and the correspondent actual timing of the sEMG-signal peak computed by reference algorithm) is 54.1±20.0 ms. Detection error and MAE are significantly higher (p<0.05) in TA data compared to GL signals. Differences among MAE values detected adopting different values for LE cut-off frequency are not statistically significant. LEP was found to be accurate in identifying the number of muscle activations during walking. However, the use of LEP to assess the timing of highest sEMG-signal energy (signal peak) should be considered carefully. Indeed, it could introduce a relevant inaccuracy in muscle-activation identification and peak-timing quantification. The type of muscle to analyze could also influence LEP performances, while the cut-off frequency chosen for envelope extraction appears to have a limited impact. • Linear envelope peak (LEP) is widely used to identify muscle activation during gait. • LEP accuracy is tested in 3100 strides of 31 subjects vs. a wavelet-based algorithm. • LEP provides an accurate identification of the number of activations in a stride. • The use of LEP introduces a relevant error in the quantification of EMG-peak timing. • LEP performances are also influenced by the type of muscle being analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although gait analysis has been widely adopted to describe Parkinson's disease (PD) dysfunctions during walking, few efforts have been made to understand muscle activity role. The current study aims to characterize lower-limb-muscle recruitment during walking in time-frequency domain, based on Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) analysis of surface-electromyography (sEMG) signal from lower-limb muscles. sEMG signals from Tibialis Anterior (TA), Gastrocnemius Lateralis (GL), Rectus Femoris (RF), and Biceps Femoris (BF) of 20 people with PD and 10 age-matched healthy controls (HC) were acquired during gait. sEMG signals were processed applying a CWT-based approach to assess the occurrence frequency (OF, i.e., the percentage of strides of each muscle activation occurrence) and the frequency content of each muscle activation (in Hz). These parameters are rarely quantified in PD. Compared to HC, people with PD displayed a significant decrease (p<0.05) in median OF on RF, BF, and TA, indicating a tendency to reduce the global involvement of lower-limb muscles. No significant differences (p>0.05) in OF were detected among muscle within the same population. No significant changes (p>0.05) in frequency content were revealed in PD. This analysis suggests that people with PD are characterized by a reduced recruitment of those muscles typically adopted to finely control body-segment motion and a concomitant increased recruitment of those muscles mainly involved in locomotion. No substantial alteration in recruiting muscle fibers is associated with PD. These findings suggest that people with PD are inclined to adopt simpler muscular-recruitment strategies during walking, compared to HC. • Lower-limb-muscle recruitment is assessed during parkinsonian (PD) walking. • Surface-EMG signal is processed in time-frequency domain by Wavelet Transform. • Muscle involvement in walking is reduced in PD patients compared to healthy peers. • No substantial alteration is observed in muscle-fiber recruitment associated to PD. • People affected by PD adopt a simpler muscular-recruitment strategy during walking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural variability of myoelectric activity during walking was recently analyzed considering hundreds of strides. This allowed assessing a parameter seldom considered in classic surface EMG (sEMG) studies: the occurrence frequency, defined as the frequency each muscle activation occurs with, quantified by the number of strides when a muscle is recruited with that specific activation modality. Aim of present study was to propose the occurrence frequency as a new parameter for assessing sEMG-signal variability during walking. Aim was addressed by processing sEMG signals acquired from Gastrocnemius Lateralis, Tibialis Anterior, Rectus Femoris and Biceps femoris in 40 healthy subjects in order to: (1) show that occurrence frequency is not correlated with ON/OFF instants (Rmean=0.11±0.07; P>0.05) and total time of activation (Rmean=0.15±0.08; P>0.05); (2) confirm the above results by two handy examples of application (analysis of gender and age) which highlighted that significant (P<0.05) gender-related and age-related differences within population were detected in occurrence frequency, but not in temporal sEMG parameters. In conclusion, present study demonstrated that occurrence frequency is able to provide further information, besides those supplied by classical temporal sEMG parameters and thus it is suitable to complement them in the evaluation of variability of myoelectric activity during walking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

EMG-based differences between females and males during walking are generally acknowledged in adults. Aim of the study was the quantification of possible gender differences in myoelectric activity of gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and tibialis anterior (TA) during walking in school-age children. Gender-related comparison with adults was also provided to get possible novel insight in maturation of gait. To this aim, Statistical gait analysis, a recent methodology performing a statistical characterization of gait by averaging spatial-temporal and surface-EMG-based parameters over hundreds of strides, was performed in100 healthy school-age children (C-group) and in 33 healthy young adults (YA-group). On average, 301±110 consecutive strides were analyzed for each subject. In C-group, no significant differences (p>0.05) were observed between females and males in GL and TA, considering mean onset/offset instants of activation and occurrence frequency. Stratifying the C-group for age, small differences between females and males in occurrence frequency of GL arose in oldest children. In YA-group, females showed a significant propensity for a more complex recruitment of TA and GL (higher number of activations during gait cycle, quantified by occurrence frequency) compared to males. These outcomes suggest that gender-related differences in sEMG parameters do not characterize the recruitment of GL and TA during child walking in early years (6-8 years), start occurring when adolescence is approaching (10-12 years), and are acknowledged in both ankle muscles only in adults. Present findings seem to support previous studies on maturation of gait which indicate adolescence as the time-range where gait is completing its maturation path. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The study was designed to assess the co-contractions of tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) in healthy school-age children during gait at self-selected speed and cadence, in terms of variability of onset-offset muscular activation and occurrence frequency.Methods: Statistical gait analysis, a recent methodology performing a statistical characterization of gait by averaging spatio-temporal and sEMG-based parameters over numerous strides, was performed in 100 healthy children, aged 6-11 years. Co-contractions were assessed as the period of overlap between activation intervals of TA and GL.Results: On average, 165±27 strides were analyzed for each child, resulting in approximately 16,500 strides. Results showed that GL and TA act as pure agonist/antagonists for ankle plantar/dorsiflexion (no co-contractions) in only 19.2±10.4% of strides. In the remaining strides, statistically significant (p<0.05) co-contractions appear in early stance (46.5±23.0% of the strides), mid-stance (28.8±15.9%), pre-swing (15.2±9.2%), and swing (73.2±22.6%). This significantly increased complexity in muscle recruitment strategy beyond the activation as pure ankle plantar/dorsiflexors, suggests that in healthy children co-contractions are likely functional to further physiological tasks as balance improvement and control of joint stability.Conclusions: This study represents the first attempt for the development in healthy children of a normative dataset for GL/TA co-contractions during gait, achieved on an exceptionally large number of strides in every child and in total. The present reference frame could be useful for discriminating physiological and pathological behavior in children and for designing more focused studies on the maturation of gait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aim of the study was to identify the different modalities of activation of gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and tibialis anterior (TA) during gait at self-selected speed, by a statistical analysis of surface electromyographic signal from a large number (hundreds) of strides per subject. The analysis on fourteen healthy adults showed a large variability in the number of activation intervals, in their occurrence rate, and in the on-off instants, within different strides of the same walk. For each muscle, the assessment of the different modalities of activation (five for muscle) allowed to identify a single pattern, common for all the modalities and able to characterize the behavior of muscles during normal gait. The pattern of GL activity centered in two regions of the gait cycle: the transition between flat foot contact and push-off (observed in 100% of total strides) and the final swing (67.1±15.9%). Two regions characterized also the pattern of TA activity: from pre-swing to following loading response (100%), and the mid-stance (30.5±15.0%). This “normality” pattern represents the first attempt for the development in healthy young adults of a reference for dynamic EMG activity of GL and TA, in terms of variability of on-off muscular activity and occurrence rate during gait. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Adaptive variability during walking is typical of child motor development. It has been reported that neurological disorders could affect this physiological phenomenon. The present work is designed to assess the adaptive variability of muscular recruitment during hemiplegic walking and to detect possible changes compared to control populations. In the attempt of limiting the complexity of computational procedure, the easy-to-measure coefficient of variation (CV) index is adopted to assess surface electromyography (sEMG) variability. The target population includes 34 Winters' type I and II hemiplegic children (H-group). Two further healthy populations, 34 age-matched children (C-group) and 34 young adults (A-group), are involved as controls. Results show a significant decrease (p < 0.05) of mean CV for gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) in H-group compared to both C-group (15% reduction) and A-group (35% reduction). Reductions of mean CV are detected also for tibialis anterior (TA) in H-group compared to C-group (7% reduction, p > 0.05) and A-group (15% reduction, p < 0.05). Lower CVs indicate a decreased intra-subject variability of ankle-muscle activity compared to controls. Novel contribution of the study is twofold: (1) To propose a CV-based approach for an easy-to-compute assessment of sEMG variability in hemiplegic children, useful in different experimental environments and different clinical purposes; (2) to provide a quantitative assessment of the reduction of intra-subject variability of ankle-muscle activity in mild-hemiplegic children compared to controls (children and adults), suggesting that hemiplegic children present a limited capability of adapting their muscle recruitment to the different stimuli met during walking task. This finding could be very useful in deepening the knowledge of this neurological disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemiplegia is a neurological disorder that is often detected in children with cerebral palsy. Although many studies have investigated muscular activity in hemiplegic legs, few EMG-based findings focused on unaffected limb. This study aimed to quantify the asymmetric behavior of lower-limb-muscle recruitment during walking in mild-hemiplegic children from surface-EMG and foot-floor contact features. sEMG signals from tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius lateralis and foot-floor contact data during walking were analyzed in 16 hemiplegic children classified as W1 according to Winter' scale, and in 100 control children. Statistical gait analysis, a methodology achieving a statistical characterization of gait by averaging surface-EMG-based features, was performed. Results, achieved in hundreds of strides for each child, indicated that in the hemiplegic side with respect to the non-hemiplegic side, W1 children showed a statistically significant: decreased number of strides with normal foot-floor contact; decreased stance-phase length and initial-contact sub-phase; curtailed, less frequent TA activity in terminal swing and a lack of TA activity at heel-strike. The acknowledged impairment of anti-phase eccentric control of dorsiflexors was confirmed in the hemiplegic side, but not in the contralateral side. However, a modified foot-floor contact pattern is evinced also in the contralateral side, probably to make up for balance requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]