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The Resilient Synthetic Vision for Advanced Control Tower Air Navigation Service Provision (RETINA) project is one of the selected Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) exploratory research projects on High Performing Airport Operations and it investigates the potential and applicability of Virtual/Augmented Reality (V/AR) technologies for the provision of Air Traffic Control (ATC) service by the airport control tower. The project assesses whether those concepts that stand behind tools such as Head-Mounted Displays (HUDs), Enhanced Vision Systems (EVSs) and Synthetic Vision Systems (SVS) can be transferred to ATC with relatively low effort and substantial benefits for controllers' Situational Awareness (SA). In doing so, two different augmented reality systems are investigated: Spatial Displays (SD) that, potentially, can be made to coincide with the tower windows and See-Through Head-Mounted Displays (ST-HMD). In this context the RETINA concept will enable the Air Traffic Controller to have a head-up view of the airport traffic even in low visibility conditions, similar to the vision currently provided in the cockpit with Head-Up displays. In the two-year project, the RETINA concept was developed, implemented and validated by means of human-in-the-loop simulations where the external view is provided to the user through a high fidelity 3D digital model in an immersive environment.

An increasing degree of automation in air traffic will also change the role of the air traffic controller (ATCO). ATCOs will fulfill significantly more monitoring tasks compared to today. However, this rather passive role may lead to Out-Of-The-Loop (OOTL) effects comprising vigilance decrement and less situation awareness. The project MINIMA (Mitigating Negative Impacts of Monitoring high levels of Automation) has conceived a system to control and mitigate such OOTL phenomena. In order to demonstrate the MINIMA concept, an experimental simulation set-up has been designed. This set-up consists of two parts: 1) a Task Environment (TE) comprising a Terminal Maneuvering Area (TMA) simulator as well as 2) a Vigilance and Attention Controller (VAC) based on neurophysiological data recording such as electroencephalography (EEG) and eye-tracking devices. The current vigilance level and the attention focus of the controller are measured during the ATCO’s active work in front of the human machine interface (HMI). The derived vigilance level and attention trigger adaptive automation functionalities in the TE to avoid OOTL effects. This paper describes the full-scale experimental set-up and the component development work towards it. Hence, it encompasses a pre-test whose results influenced the development of the VAC as well as the functionalities of the final TE and the two VAC’s sub-components., {"references":["ACARE, \"Flightpath 2050-Europe's Vision for Aviation,\" Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe, 2011.","SESAR JU, \"European ATM Master Plan,\" 2012.","HALA!, \"Deliverable, I. D. Position Paper,\" hala-sesar.net, 2012.","E. E. Jones, A. R. Carter-Sowell, J. R. Kelly, and K. D. Williams, \"I'm out of the loop': Ostracism through information exclusion,\" Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(2), 2009, pp. 157–174.","P. Arico, G. Borghini, G. Di Flumeri, N. Sciaraffa, A. Colosimo, and F. Babiloni, \"Passive BCI in Operational Environments: Insights, Recent Advances and Future trends,\" IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 2017.","M. I. Posner and S. J. Boies, \"Components of attention,\" Psychological review, 78(5), 391, 1971.","D. Kahneman, \"Attention and effort,\" Vol. 1063, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1973.","R. Parasuraman, J. S. Warm, and J. E. See, \"Brain systems of vigilance,\" in The attentive brain, Cambridge, MA, US: The MIT Press, 1998, pp. 221–256.","M. Steriade, P. Gloor, R. R. Llinas, F. L. Da Silva, and M.-M. Mesulam, \"Basic mechanisms of cerebral rhythmic activities,\" Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., vol. 76, no. 6, pp. 481–508, 1990.\n[10]\tW. Sturm and K. 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Gould et al., \"Visual Analogue Scale (VAS),\" Journal of Clinical Nursing, 2001, 10, pp. 697–706.\n[16]\tT.-W. Lee, M. Girolami, and T. J. Sejnowski, \"Independent Component Analysis Using an Extended Infomax Algorithm for Mixed Subgaussian and Supergaussian Sources,\" Neural Comput., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 417–441, Feb. 1999.\n[17]\tA. Delorme and S. Makeig, \"EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis,\" J. Neurosci. Methods, vol. 134, no. 1, pp. 9–21, Mar. 2004.\n[18]\tF. J. Harris, \"On the Use of Windows for Harmonic Analysis With the Discrete Fourier Transform,\" Proc. IEEE, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 51–83, 1978.\n[19]\tW. Klimesch, \"EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis,\" Brain Res. Rev., vol. 29, no. 2–3, pp. 169–195, Apr. 1999.\n[20]\tP. Aricò, G. Di Borghini, G. Di Flumeri, S. Bonelli, A. Golfetti, I. Graziani, S. Pozzi, J.-P. Imbert, G. Granger, R. Benhacene, D. Schaefer, F. Babiloni, \"Human Factors and Neurophysiological Metrics in Air Traffic Control: a Critical Review,\" IEEE reviews in biomedical engineering, 2017.\n[21]\tP. Aricò, G. Borghini, G. Di Flumeri, A. Colosimo, S. Bonelli, A. Golfetti, and F. Babiloni, \"Adaptive automation triggered by EEG-based mental workload index: a passive brain-computer interface application in realistic air traffic control environment,\" Frontiers in human neuroscience, 10, 2016."]}

Current researches on aircraft design aim to reduce airplanes and components weights, optimizing aircraft performances and contributing to the challenge of reducing fuel consumption and operational costs. In this perspective novel materials and technologies are developed, but also advances in design methods and tools. Generative Design is a novel approach to automatically optimize component design. The design process has to be designed itself to achieve the optimal solution, in relation to design parameters, requirements and limits. Which peculiar features justify considering this technique to be a substantial step forward with respect to classical MDO? Could Generative Design be only an important, but not particularly differentiated approach for the design of (aerospace) structures and possibly systems of a higher level? For example, when the design goal is to find the best configuration of a structure, does generative design lead to the discovery of new concepts, or types of structures, or it is a particular application of genetic algorithms to topological optimization? This paper aims to contribute to give an answer to the previous questions. Specifically, the generative design approach is expected to be able to select between basic concepts and use these as the basic instructions and ingredients of a recipe for the design of a new system. By these considerations, in this paper, we revised the improvements brought by Generative Design principles within the traditional design procedure in aeronautics, considering Additive Manufacturing technology.

This paper describes the preliminary design of a short-medium range windowless aircraft, with the aim to reduce fuselage weight. As a matter of fact, the aircraft weight reduction is the main element to reduce fuel consumption providing advantages in terms of operational costs reduction and environmental impact of the flight operations. An innovative solution based on OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) technology is considered to improve passengers’ comfort avoiding claustrophobic effects that can arise from the elimination of traditional windows. A traditional configuration is considered as reference: weight and cost reduction provided by the introduction of a windowless configuration are assessed by means of analytical study. Moreover, the preliminary design activity has been coupled with the development of a digital mock-up. A small-scale demonstrator of the selected configuration has been manufactured by means of a rapid prototyping technique.

Developing green propulsion concepts for aviation requires some changes in standard procedures for the preliminary aircraft design. Standard design procedures are not readily applicable to aircraft/rotorcraft that use multiple energy sources; innovative concepts like hybrid propulsion systems require new approaches in weight and performance prediction. In this paper the application of new methods is explored to account for the changes in the governing equations when using hybrid propulsion: a design code allows predicting the performances once the hybrid propulsion architecture is chosen. Focus is on hybrid propulsion systems based on a diesel heavy fuel ICE (Internal Combustion Engine) combined with an electric motor in a parallel configuration. This study relies on simple structure and material performance indexes, neglects stability and control analysis, and uses very simple aerodynamic models.

Current research on ATM (Air Traffic Management) is progressively focusing on the “green operations” concept. The European Commission as well as foreign institutions has identified Air Traffic as one of the sectors in which a “green” policy could be successfully implemented. Starting from the ACARE strategic research agenda, published in 2002, many EU funded projects have been launched aiming at a dramatic reduction of noise and pollution produced by Air Transportation System. Airport operations strongly affect the pollution and noise produced by an aircraft during the whole mission impacting on the environment and people living near airports. On the other hand, airport area and more generally the Terminal Aerodrome Zone is the bottleneck of Air Traffic System. The maximum capacity of Air Space is limited by the capacity of the airports. Therefore, the optimization of such operations is recognized as a challenge that aims at finding the best trade-off solution in order to maximize the airport capacity and minimize both pollution and noise. Modelling and simulation are the most powerful tools to study such an optimization problem. To help the evaluation of the model performances, a synthetic environment able to faithfully represent the airport area and its players (aircraft, helicopters, ground vehicles, etc.) is presented in this paper as an analysis tool. An experimental scenario that simulates Rome Fiumicino airport has been developed. In it aircraft are modelled as single material points and they are moved by an external simulation model implemented in Matlab/Simulink. The simulation model accepts as input variables the waypoints’ list to be visited by the aircraft and the aircraft speed. It gives as output the shortest path on the available taxi ways. The aircraft position at each time step is sent through an UDP protocol to the visualization environment and processed in order to obtain a fluent animation.

The problem of sequencing arrivals and departures on airport runways is one of the most important challenge for current and future ATM. Presently only few airports in Europe use Departure and Arrival management systems: respectively DMAN (Departure Manager) and AMAN (Arrival Manager). The First Come First Served principle is often used to define the sequence of arrivals on a runway and the sequence of departures at the holding points; Air Traffic Controllers try to insert each departure between arrival flights maintaining the appropriate separation. This results in non efficient systems from the perspective of delays, fuel consumption and workload of both pilots and controllers. The goal of this research is to optimize the sequence of runway utilization, in terms of arriving and departing aircraft, that produces the minimum average delay for the airport system. For this purpose a Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm is designed and implemented over real air traffic data. The algorithm redefines the sequence taking into account constraints derived from a realistic shift of the aircraft position and CFMU flow restrictions. As a result, a delay is assigned to each aircraft arriving or departing from the airport: it corresponds to the delay on the start-up or on the beginning of the approach that makes it possible to optimize the traffic flow on the runways.

The recent developments in piston engine technology have increased performances as specific power and specific fuel consumption; environmental concern and increasing fuel cost are the main driving factors of this evolution. New generations of turbo-diesel engines have been developed for automotive applications, being now competitive with their gasoline counterpart. The use of Diesel engine for aeronautical propulsion is a discussed topic. In the past few years there have been a number of attempts to produce diesel engines for aircraft/rotorcraft and to this aim the three most important objectives to be pursued are reliability, compactness and low weight to power ratio. In this paper an outline of the most challenging aeronautical applications for diesel engines and an overview of the most promising technical solutions are provided.

The optimization of airport operations is recognized as a challenge that aims at finding the best trade-off solution in order to maximize the airport capacity and minimize both pollution and noise. In a previous study we presented the processing, by Dijkstra algorithm, of airport data in order to find the shortest path between two assigned waypoints. However this approach did not provide the best solution in terms of computational time, that become of major importance in a decision making process such as airport operation optimization. In this paper a new approach to the optimum path search is undertaken through the metaheuristic Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). PSO simulates the behaviors of bird flocking. Each single solution is a "bird" in the search space and it is called "particle". The best solution is reached by following the bird which is nearest to the objective.

In this paper we propose a Virtual Reality simulation system. The aim of this simulator is to provide a tool to early investigate the application of three-dimensional graphics in future HUDs. First concept results of 3D weather data representation in cruise and approach scenarios are presented. This work has been developed in the framework of the ALICIA (All Conditions Operations and Innovative Cockpit Infrastructure) Project (Seventh Framework Programme of the European Commission).

In the Approach Control Area an important match for reducing aviation environmental impact is played. Aircraft Sequencing Problem (or Aircraft Landing Problem) has been widely studied for the last years in order to find the optimal sequence that maximizes the number of landing aircraft in the time unit. The model we propose is based on no-wait Job-Shop Scheduling with sequence dependent machine set up time and release date. In our model STAR and SID are divided into air segments: runways and air segments of arrival and departure procedures are modeled as machines, airplanes are considered as job with release date. Each machine i processes an Aircraft/Job and produces a cost for the environment. The impact of the pollution in each element of the grid map depends on the related machine. The “green” sensitivity of each grid map element is defined by using numerical models. Starting from existing Job-Shop Scheduling models, by means of elitary Genetic Algorithm, the number of movements in the time unit is optimized to manage the Approach airspace. Finally, an experimental analysis is presented, it has been performed on a case study of Bologna airport terminal area.

In this paper we present a Genetic Algorithm designed to manage the mission of an UAS that has to visit a set of mission points into a congested airport TMA (Terminal Area) . The genetic approach is useful to model the presence of different avoidance options: populations of pilots that have different “avoidance philosophy” are crossed in order to obtain a good mix of avoidance technique. Our methodology is based on a strategic, intent-based, non-cooperative (only one aircraft – the UAV –maneuver), geometric (prediction is based on geometrical projections) and distributed (as opposed to centralized) approach. Finally, real piloted traffic data from the Milano Linate (LIML) Terminal Area are used to test the algorithm.

Since 1989 the military scene has substantially changed: there are many nimble and dynamic threats as opposed to the former deployment of each state army. Therefore, this leads to the need of permanent surveillance and monitoring of large areas associated with the capability of a fast combat reaction and this demand is usually performed by deploying both surveillance and ground attack aircrafts. Fighter employment increases the mission costs, because of their poor flight endurance, so it is necessary to use many aircraft; moreover, these vehicles are requested to have a very low radar and infrared signature. On the other hand, surveillance aircraft usually have a very limited attack capability, so there is a dead time between the detection of a threat and the action, with a consequent tactical inefficiency. This paper shows a preliminary analysis referred to an unmanned vehicle with a variable geometry configuration, named VGV (Variable Geometry Vehicle), that aims at matching the high endurance capability of surveillance aircrafts with the high performances and survivability of fighter-ground attack aircraft. The performance analysis of an open and a closed configuration has been undertaken and a conceptual study has been afforded in order to find a mechanical solution to move the outer portion of the wing and inserting it into the trailing edge of the fixed part in order to change the geometry of the aircraft in flight. The proposed design solution is innovative because it matches two different configurations in a unique aircraft. A new unmanned system concept is proposed, with a variable wing geometry which can move from a typical surveillance configuration to a combat one.

Our research group is involved in the development of aviation diesel engines for high altitude applications, and this paper describes the activity concerning the design of new experimental facilities for altitude testing. Two different solutions are evaluated: a hypobaric chamber reproducing altitude effects on the ground and an experimental airplane for testing in flight. The ground test facility should consist of a chamber, within which the engine, the turbo charging and the refrigerating systems are mounted, and in which the atmosphere is maintained at altitude conditions (low pressure and temperature). Different architectures and system designs are discussed and evaluated. The second solution concerns the installation of the test engine as aft engine of a Cessna 337, ‘push-pull’ twin engine aircraft, that provides the possibility to mount two propellers on the aircraft’s centreline. The rear test engine installation has been analyzed to provide all necessary modifications for cowling, cooling systems installation, engine controls, gearbox, fuel system, data acquisition system and test engineer console. A final discussion evaluates advantages and disadvantages of both solutions.

Rapid prototyping (RP) processes, classified as “time compression technologies”, are tools for realising physical models in short time and competitive costs. RP provides designers with the tools to rapidly generate an initial prototype directly from a CAD model. The weak points are the poor mechanical strength and the low surface finish of the produced parts. The Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) RP process produces prototype parts out of ABS plastic: the model is exported to the RP machine software using the stereolithography (STL) format. The STL format is supported by most CAD systems and it reduces the part geometry to a polygonal 3D mesh, so that the part loses some resolution and the original geometry model is approximated with tolerances depending on the part orientation during the manufacturing process. The FDM process produces parts with unique characteristics that can be improved by an accurate choice of the main deposition (xy) plane. Dimensional tolerances may be better controlled on directions parallel to the xy plane; this has some implications on the proper choice of the part placemen. Also surface roughness can be controlled through a proper orientation of the part on the FDM machine. Furthermore it is necessary to take care of deposition orientation because of the resulting anisotropy of the mechanical strength. This paper presents a powerful tool to optimise the component desired features by acting on the part orientation during the FDM process. The optimization takes into account the employed support structure, the time employed for the deposition and the superficial roughness that can be reached by using, as design variables, the Euler angles of the body axes with respect to the FDM machine reference system. A Genetic Algorithm is used to perform the optimization. Two cases are considered: minimization of (i) the specific surface roughness or (ii) machine time needed to complete the part. Some examples are presented, concerning the realisation of parts having complex shape for a wind tunnel model.

Innovation in the design of future cockpits is strongly envisioned in the VII Framework Programme of the European Commission. A major challenge is recognised in the definition of advanced HMI (Human Machine Interface) architectures, implementing technologies that provide allcondition capabilities. In order to clarify the task and start the early phase of new concepts definition we need to identify the fundamental technologies which are currently available on the market or are under experimentation in the major industrial and academic research centres. To this aim, SVEs/EVEs (Synthetic Vision Environments and Enhanced Vision Environments) are investigated in this paper, considering their capability of meeting all conditions requirements and providing adequate SA (Situation Awareness) levels. Moreover, we present a ranking of such technologies from the user’s point of view. The pilot’s perception of all-conditions operations concept and opinions on the operative advantages of candidate technologies are collected in a focus group. For this purpose new HMI concepts are simulated in our Virtual Reality Lab.

Flight path, aircraft altitude, speed and power settings over populated areas directly affect noise and emission cumulative exposure. In this study these factors are analysed in order to devise a strategy for minimizing the environmental impact of low-altitude flying aircrafts, approaching/leaving airports over congested areas or performing surveillance missions. Two approaches are proposed, the first is based on a geometric algorithm and the second on operations research techniques. The algorithms are implemented on realistic scenarios and the obtained results are compared.

Today’s strategy for competition is based on innovative business models. Several examples exist of how companies develop their business models based on the principles of “mass customization” which represents a trade-off between mass production and the challenge of a really “customized” product (ad personam). Some companies have recently focused with more attention on the challenge of providing customers with an unique product, built on the customer’s body, wish and feelings, that has almost the same delivery time, price and quality of common serial product. In order to obtain such a product, the manufacturing process must be radically revised. This paper discusses the employment of time compression technologies (TCT), mainly reverse engineering and rapid prototyping, as an effective solution for the development of customized products. The unique shape of a human body (or parts of it) can be digitalized using reverse engineering (RE) techniques in order to obtain a 3D model which highlights the constraints introduced by customization. Then data coming from RE can be easily fused with CAD models in order to rapidly obtain a 3D electronic model of the product which can be enriched with customized surface textures according to customer’s likings. Once the digital model is available, different rapid prototyping (RP) and manufacturing (RM) techniques can be used depending on the mechanical and physical features of the final product. The result is a unique, rapid, and perfectly customized product with performances allowing for a moderately higher price. The aim of our investigation is to propose an easy, time and cost-effective process in order to enhance the feasibility of customized products. Starting from an evaluation on current trends among accessories for young users some case-studies have been analyzed.

A major issue in the industrial product development is the reduction of the “time to market”. Early releases of the initial design usually need to be tested and several first prototypical versions are manufactured. In this phase the use of “soft tooling” is compulsory, since the “hard tools” of serial production are unsuitable for the several changes necessary during the development phase. This paper presents the potentials of the rapid prototyping process adopted in our laboratories to overcome problems due to the standard production cycle in the industrial field. Even with virtual prototyping, several problems arise during the manufacturing process, where important technological constraints impose modification of the original, strictly functional, CAD model. Over constrained, feature based design is an old dream of product managers, material purchasers and manufacturers. Through the rapid prototyping process, one of the most useful “time compression technologies”, it is possible to implement the 3D CAD model into a prototyping machine and to realise physical models for several kind of applications in competitive time and costs. For aircraft/helicopter/naval components where weight, performance and reliability are in the top part of the list, this approach may cancel some overcomplicated solution that unavoidably conduct to difficult manufacturing, long development time, production and quality problems.

In this paper we present the design and development of a horizontal interface called TABO (TAbletop at uniBO). TABO is a low cost, passive stereo, rear projected visualization device conceived to support the analysis of complex simulated environments. The horizontal lay-out of the projection screen is suitable for the visualization of synthetic environments in that fields in which the top is considered as a natural point of view (God’s eye view). On the other side, the projection area size provides a multi-user co-located visualization. One of the projects developed by means of TABO is based on the visualization of ATC (Air Traffic Control) scenarios. The photorealistic virtual environment is populated with airplanes animated by different data sources such as FDR (Flight Data Recorders) and flight simulators connected in real time. ATC is a collaborative process in which the top is a natural point of view (radar displays, maps etc.). In this case, the use of stereoscopy enhances the perception of depth, giving to the user more awareness about the vertical separation of airplanes.

Due to the interest of general public and the industrial stakeholders, new challenges and demands are rising in aircraft design. The sustainability is taking its place amongst more traditional design factors, such as safety, performances and costs. Sustainability is both environmental and economic, and among the factors contributing to economic sustainability, there is also passengers' comfort. In order to win these two challenges, they must be considered in the early stages of aircraft design. In this work, the focus is on emissions generation and acoustic comfort, aiming at reducing pollution and internal noise in the preliminary design phases. These results can be achieved with both unconventional aircraft configurations and advanced materials, which also require new numerical formulations to be assessed. In this research, on one hand, the windowless configuration for a commercial aircraft is studied with traditional preliminary design methods in order to achieve a weight reduction and consequently a return in terms of emissions and costs. On the other hand, a new class of insulating materials, the acoustic metamaterials, is applied on the passenger cabin lining panels. The complex kinematic behaviour of these advanced materials is studied through the Carrera's Unified Formulation, that enhances a wide class of powerful refined shell and beam theories with a unique formulation.

The SESAR (Single European Sky Air Traffic Management Research) Joint Undertaking has recently granted the Resilient Synthetic Vision for Ad- vanced Control Tower Air Navigation Service Provision project within the framework of the H2020 research on High Performing Airport Operations. Here- after, we describe the project motivations, the objectives, the proposed method- ology and the expected impacts, i.e. the consequences of using virtual/augmented reality technologies in the control tower.