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The increasing global warming trend has resulted in the mass loss of most glaciers. The Urumqi Vally, located in the dry and cold zone of China, and its widely dispersed glaciers are significant to the regional ecological environment, oasis economic development, and industrial and agricultural production. This is representative of glaciers in Middle Asia and represents one of the world's longest observed time series of glaciers, beginning in 1959. The Urumqi Headwater Glacier No. 1 (UHG-1) has a dominant presence in the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS). This paper supplies a comprehensive analysis of past studies and future modeling of glacier changes in the Urumqi Valley. It has received insufficient attention in the past, and the mass balance of UHG-1 was used to verify that the geodetic results and the OGGM model simulation results are convincing. The main conclusions are: The area of 48.68 ± 4.59 km2 delineated by 150 glaciers in 1958 decreased to 21.61 ± 0.27 km2 delineated by 108 glaciers in 2022, with a reduction of 0.47 ± 0.04 km2·a−1 (0.96% a−1 in 1958–2022). The glacier mass balance by geodesy is −0.69 ± 0.11 m w.e.a−1 in 2000–2022, which is just deviating from the measured result (−0.66 m w.e.a−1), but the geodetic result in this paper can be enough to reflect the glacier changes (−0.65 ± 0.11 m w.e.a−1) of the URB in 2000–2022. The future loss rate of area and volume will undergo a rapid and then decelerating process, with the fastest and slowest inflection points occurring around 2035 and 2070, respectively. High temperatures and large precipitation in summer accelerate glacier loss, and the corresponding lag period of glacier change to climate is about 2–3 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Special Issue aims to highlight research articles focusing on the geographical scale of glacier and lake ice variations, as well as the engineering scale of ice properties and their practical applications via laboratory tests and numerical modeling. Additionally, it includes research on ecosystems under lake ice. The main goal is successfully achieved through the joint efforts of authors, anonymous reviewers, and editorial managers. In total, 1 review article and 15 research articles are included in this Special Issue. These articles cover a wide range of topics, including water resources from Chinese mountain glacier variation; lake ice phenology at different latitudes and altitudes around the world; ice properties from laboratory experiments and numerical modeling; ice engineering with different purposes in China and the Arctic; and ecosystem under lake ice at different temporal and spatial scales. This Special Issue received contributions from researchers from different parts of China and from Chinese international cooperation partners because of its focus on "higher temperature ice" under global warming. All papers presented are innovative and of high quality. This Special Issue can promote research on ice properties and their applications in practices ranging from mountains to sea, especially in popular water ecosystem environments under ice during seasonal ice period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in scientific research into hydrogeochemical research on glacier meltwater. Nevertheless, systematic and quantitative analyses are lacking to investigate how this research field has developed over the years. As a result, this study is aimed at examining and evaluating recent research trends and frontiers in hydrogeochemical research on glacier meltwater throughout the previous 20 years (2002–2022) and at locating collaboration networks. This is the first global-scale study, and visualization of the key hotspots and trends in hydrogeochemical research has been presented here. The Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database aided in the retrieval of research publications related to hydrogeochemical research of glacier meltwater published between 2002 and 2022. From the beginning of 2002 till July 2022, 6035 publications on the hydrogeochemical study of glacier meltwater were compiled. The result revealed that the number of published papers on the hydrogeochemical study of glacier meltwater at higher altitudes had grown exponentially, with USA and China being the main research countries. The number of publications produced from the USA and China accounts for about half (50%) of all publications from the top 10 countries. Kang SC, Schwikowski M, and Tranter M are highly influential authors in hydrogeochemical research of glacier meltwater. However, the research from developed nations, particularly the United States, emphasizes hydrogeochemical research more than those from developing countries. In addition, the research on glacier meltwater's role in streamflow components is limited, particularly in the high-altitude regions and needs to be enhanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a particular type of alpine glacier, debris-covered glaciers are essential for local water resources and glacial disaster warnings. The Eastern Tomur Peak Region (EPTR) is the most concentrated glacier in Tien Shan Mountain, China, where the glaciers have not been studied in detail. This paper evaluates the delineation accuracy of Landsat8 OLI, Sentinel-1A, and GF images for debris-covered glaciers in the EPTR. Each image uses the most advanced delineation method for itself to minimize the error of inherent resolutions. The results show that the accuracy of these images for delineating debris-covered glaciers is very high, and the F1 scores are expressed as 96.73%, 93.55%, and 95.81%, respectively. Therefore, Landsat images were selected to analyze the area change of EPTR from 2000 to 2022 over a 5-year time scale. The results indicate that glaciers of the EPTR decreased by 19.05 km2 from 2000 to 2020, accounting for 1.9% (0.08% a−1), and debris increased by 10.8%, which validates the opinion that the presence of debris inhibits glacier melting. The most varied time was 2010–2022, but it was much less than other Tien Shan regions. The lower glacier ablation rate in this area results from the combined effect of decreased bare ice and increased debris. The main reason for the change in debris-covered glaciers is the increase in temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glacier mass balance can visually indicate the degree of glacier response to climate change. The mountain glaciers are an essential source of recharge for rivers in arid regions and play a vital role in maintaining regional ecological stability and production life. This paper drives a spatially distributed degree-day model using multi-source remote sensing data such as MOD11C3 and TRMM3B43 to simulate the mass balance in the Tianshan Mountains' south and north slope basins. The spatiotemporal heterogeneity of the mass balance was compared and attributed using a Geographical detector. The results show that: (1) The glaciers in the north and south basins are mainly distributed at an altitude of 3900–4300 m, and the total glacier area accounts for 85.71%. The number of less than 1 km2 glaciers is the most in the whole region. (2) During the study period, the glaciers in the north and south basins were negative (−465.95 mm w.e.) an entire interannual change rate was −28.36 mm w.e./a. The overall trend of ablation can be divided into two stages: from 2000 to 2010a, the persistence increased, and from 2010 to 2016a, the volatility decreased. (3) In the attribution of mass balance, the factors affecting glacier mass balance can be divided into two parts: climate and topography. The cumulative contribution rate of climate factors in Kaidu is nearly 20% higher than that of topographic factors, but the contribution rate of climate factors in Manas is only 7.3% higher. Therefore, the change of glacier mass balance in the Kaidu river basin is more driven by climate factors, while the glacier mass balance in the Manas river basin is more affected by the combination of climate and topographic factors. (4) The climate accumulation is the dominant factor in the Manas river basin (69.55%); for the ablation area, the Kaidu river basin is dominated by climate (70.85%), and the Manas river basin is dominated by topographic factors (54.11%). Due to the driving force of climate and topographic factors and the different coupling modes, glacier mass balance's spatiotemporal heterogeneity in the north and south slope basins is caused. This study contributes to analyzing the mechanism of regional changes in the glacier mass balance. It provides a scientific basis for investigating the characteristics of water resource changes and water resource regulation in the north and south slope basins of the Tianshan Mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

COSMO-SkyMed is a constellation of four X-band high-resolution radar satellites with a minimum revisit period of 12 hours. These satellites can obtain ascending and descending synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images with very similar periods for use in the three-dimensional (3D) inversion of glacier velocities. In this paper, based on ascending and descending COSMO-SkyMed data acquired at nearly the same time, the surface velocity of the Yiga Glacier, located in the Jiali County, Tibet, China, is estimated in four directions using an offset tracking technique during the periods of 16 January to 3 February 2017 and 1 February to 19 February 2017. Through the geometrical relationships between the measurements and the SAR images, the least square method is used to retrieve the 3D components of the glacier surface velocity in the eastward, northward and upward directions. The results show that applying the offset tracking technique to COSMO-SkyMed images can be used to derive the true 3D velocity of a glacier's surface. During the two periods, the Yiga Glacier had a stable velocity, and the maximum surface velocity, 2.4 m/d, was observed in the middle portion of the glacier, which corresponds to the location of the steepest slope. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the first time, the proposed railway from China to Nepal will cross the Himalayan region, where glacial lakes are most concentrated. The calculation of the parameters needed for bridge clearance setting and pier protection and the characteristic value of ice lake outburst for linear engineering have not been found in domestic and foreign standards and codes. In this paper, the reserves and distribution characteristics of the source materials are delineated by means of geological survey, multi - historical satellite remote sensing images from 1984 to the present, SBAS - InSAR differential interferogram deformation analysis, rain - flood method, RAMMS numerical simulation, etc. The change trend of reservoir capacity and areas of Guorucuo Glacial Lake are analyzed, and the structure and stability of germinal moraine and trailing edge glacier are evaluated. The results of rain-flood method are as follows: velocity 3. 51 m/ s, mud depth 1. 26 m, overall impact force 29. 30 kN/ m2 ; RAMMS calculation: velocity 3. 54 m/ s, mud depth 1. 28 m, overall impact force 19. 00 kN/ m2 . Comparing the results of rain-flood method and RAMMS numerical simulation, the results of rain-flood method and numerical simulation are close to each other in the section of railway bridge. Therefore, it is suggested that 7. 89 m should be adopted for the clearance of railway bridge on the ice lake outburst passage. This method is used to study how to calculate the characteristic value of ice-lake outburst debris flow in the linear engineering of ice-lake developing area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a study on the main reasons for the transformation of wetland ecosystems in the Delta of the Ili River in the period of 1979-2014. The study results are shown based on the analysis of multi-temporal satellite data Landsat, dynamics of hydrological regime of the river Ili, climate conditions and features of economic activities of the local community, as well as fieldwork in the study region. Analysis of area changes of main types of hydromorphic and semi-hydromorphic ecosystems of Delta river Ili in high and medium on water discharge in the following (1979, 1993, 2000, 2010, and 2015) years. Increasing water consumption in China and in Kazakhstan part of the Ili-Balkhash basin due to the development of the agrarian and municipal sectors of economy especially in China, significantly exceed increasing flow of Ili River, caused by regional warming in the catchment part of Ili River Basin. The global warming has intensified the degradation of glaciers in mountain catchment areas of Ili River, this in the near future threatens with a decline in river flow and as a consequence lead to the deterioration of delta ecosystems and the desiccation of lake Balkhash similarly to the ecological disaster of the Aral Sea. Analysis of long-term (from 1970 to 2013) climatic data from three meteorological stations demonstrated a trend of the regional increase of average annual air temperature by 1.4 °C and decreasing of average annual precipitation by 10 mm. These factors also contribute to the transformation process of hydromorphic ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a key component of the hydrological cycle, knowledge and comprehension of precipitation formation and evolution are of leading significance. This study investigates the statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution for heavy precipitation events with observations collected by a Present Weather Sensor (PWS100) disdrometer located in the alpine area of eastern Tianshan, China. The characteristics are quantified based on heavy rain, heavy snow, and hail precipitation events classified using the rainfall intensity and the precipitation-related weather codes (US National Weather Service). On average, the heavy precipitation events in the headwaters of the Urumqi River are dominated by medium-sized (2–4 mm) raindrops. As well, we investigate mass-weighted mean diameter–normalized intercept parameter scatterplots, which demonstrate that the heavy precipitation events in alpine regions of the Tianshan Mountains can be identified as maritime-like clusters. The concentration of raindrops in heavy precipitation is the highest overall, while the concentration of raindrops in heavy snow is the lowest when the diameter is lower than 1.3 mm. The power–law relationships of radar reflectivity (Z) and rain rate (R) [Z = ARb] for the heavy rain, heavy snow, and hail precipitation events are also calculated. The Z–R relationship of heavy rain and heavy snow in this work has a lower coefficient value of A (10 and 228.7, respectively) and a higher index value of b (2.6 and 2.1, respectively), and the hail events are the opposite (A = 551.5, b = 1.3), compared to the empirical relation (Z = 300R1.4). Furthermore, the possible thermodynamics and general atmospheric circulation that cause the distinctions in the raindrop size distribution characteristics between alpine areas and other parts of the Tianshan Mountains are also debated in this work. The headwaters of the Urumqi River in alpine areas have relatively colder and wetter surroundings in the near-surface layer than the foothills of the Tianshan Mountains during the precipitation process. Meanwhile, a lower temperature, a higher relative humidity, a more efficient collision coalescence mechanism, and glacier local microclimate effects (temperature jump, inverse glacier temperature, glacier wind) at the headwaters of the Urumqi River during the precipitation process are probably partly responsible for more medium- and large-size drops in the mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystem services (ESs) serve as a fundamental cornerstone for upholding global biodiversity and promoting human well-being. ESs trade-off and synergy are supposed to be significantly affected by climate change (CC) and land use/cover change (LULC). However, the limited availability of finely classified future land-use data and integrated landscape change models incorporating climate change scenarios has hindered our understanding of the trade-off and synergistic patterns and controls of ESs at multiple scales, particularly in arid areas. Here, a future multi-scenario ESs trade-off/collaborative assessment framework (SD-PLUS-InVEST model) for multi-scale conversion and refined land-use classification was developed by coupling the patch-generated land-use simulation (PLUS) model, system dynamics (SD) model, InVEST model, geographically weighted regression (GWR) model, optimal parameter geographical detector (OPGD) model, and structural equation model (SEM). The four ESs, namely carbon storage (CS), habitat quality (HQ), water conservation (WC), and soil conservation (SC), were assessed. Further, multi-scale ESs were evaluated under different climate change and development scenarios (i.e., the SSP1-2.6 and ecological protection scenario, SSP1-2.6-EP; SSP2-4.5 and natural development scenario, SSP2-4.5-ND; SSP5-8.5 and economic growth scenario, SSP5-8.5-EG). The results demonstrated that the arid region of northwest China (ANWC) was experiencing a significant and continuous warming trend accompanied by increased humidity. There will be a significant decrease in the areas occupied by paddy fields, natural forests, and permanent glaciers among the 24 LULC types. Conversely, there will be a substantial increase in dry land, high-coverage grassland, and urban construction land areas. According to the SSP1-2.6-EP, SSP2-4.5-ND, and SSP5-8.5-EG scenarios, the comprehensive land-use dynamic degrees were estimated to reach 2.58%, 4.08%, and 4.74%, respectively. The LULC resulting from CC exacerbates the differences in the four ESs of ANWC. In particular, CS and HQ experience significant reductions in 2100. Conversely, WC and SC show notable increases during the same period. The changes in CS, HQ, WC, and SC reach 11.36 × 108 m3, 1735.25 × 108 t, −1.29 × 108 t, and −0.009, respectively. The four ESs of CS, HQ, WC, and SC in ANWC display a synergistic relationship. This synergy is influenced by the heterogeneous spatial distribution of CS, HQ, WC, and SC, with the strongest synergy observed between CS and HQ and the weakest between CS and WC. Interestingly, the distribution differences in ESs synergy were amplified at watershed, county, and grid scales in mountainous areas, with the most significant detection differentiation occurring at the grid scale. Furthermore, the detection of spatial heterogeneity in the four ESs can be attributed to various factors. These factors include the drought index (q = 0.378), annual average precipitation (q = 0.375), economic density (q = 0.095), vegetation coverage (q = 0.262), and soil bulk density (q = 0.077). Our results highlight the importance of CC in influencing ESs. The spatial variations in ESs trade-offs and coordination at different scales, particularly the pronounced differences observed in mountainous areas, underscore the need to prioritize the conservation of arid mountainous regions in terms of future policy making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The western Tianshan Mountains region in China has a complex topography where basins, mountains and glaciers co-exist. It is of great significance to study the sensitivity of meteorological factors in this region to different parameterization schemes of climate models. In this paper, the regional climate model RegCM4.5 is used to simulate the meteorological factor (mean temperature, maximum temperature, minimum temperature, precipitation and wind speed) occurring in the western Tianshan Mountains region from 2012 to 2016, so as to investigate the effects of different cumulus convective schemes (Grell, Tiedtke and Emanuel), including land cumulus convective schemes (LCCs) and ocean convective schemes (OCCs) on annual and seasonal simulations of meteorological factor by using the schemes of RUN1 (Grell for LCC and Tiedtke for OCC), RUN2 (Tiedtke for LCC and Emanuel for OCC), RUN3 (Grell for LCC and Emanuel for OCC) and ENS (the ensemble of RUN1, RUN2 and RUN3). The results show that the simulations of annual and seasonal meteorological factors are not significantly sensitive to the combination of LCCs and OCCs. In the annual simulations, RUN2 scheme has the best simulation performance for the maximum, average and minimum temperatures. However, other schemes of precipitation simulation outperform RUN2 scheme, and there is no difference among the four schemes for wind speed simulation. In the seasonal simulations, RUN2 scheme still performs well in the simulation of the average, maximum and minimum temperatures for four seasons, except for the simulation of the average temperature in spring and summer. For the simulation of the maximum temperature in summer, RUN2 scheme performs the same as ENS. For the simulation of other seasons, different meteorological factors have different performances in four seasons. Overall, the results show that different combinations of cumulus convection schemes can improve the simulation performance of meteorological factors in the western Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The glaciers in northwest China are mainly distributed in the northern part of the Himalayas, the Kunlun Mountains, and the Tianshan Mountains. Glaciers are an important freshwater resource in the northern part of the Kunlun Mountains, and the melting of glaciers and snow provides an assured source of water for rivers on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. Based on the first glacier inventory dataset on China (1968), the second glacier inventory dataset on China (2009), and the glacier inventory dataset on Western China in 2018, this study used DEM data, Landsat remote sensing images, and ERA5 atmospheric reanalysis data to investigate glacier change and its influencing factors with respect to the northern part of the Kunlun Mountains. The results showed that there were 9273 glaciers in the northern part of the Kunlun Mountains in 2018, with an area of about 11,762.72 km2, an ice inventory of about 1168.53 km3, and an average length per glacier of about 1.68 km. The glaciers were mainly distributed at altitudes of 5300–6100 m (7574.66 km2). From 1968 to 2018, the number of glaciers in the northern stretch of the Kunlun Mountains increased by 343, while the glacier area decreased by 2452.80 km2 (−0.14%/a). From 2009 to 2018, the glacier area at the altitude of 4900 m to 6100 m decreased in the northern section of the Kunlun Mountains, and the glacier area at the remaining altitude increased slightly (10.67 km2). From 1968 to 2018, the glacier area and glacier length in all river basins decreased. The relative rate of glacier area change in the Qarqan River basin from 2009 to 2018 was five times that of 1968–2009, and this needs significant attention. From 1968 to 2018, both temperature and precipitation increased to varying degrees, and the increase in precipitation was beneficial to the accumulation of glaciers. Therefore, the increase in temperature was the main cause of glacier change in the northern section of the Kunlun Mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Icequakes associated with crevassing provide key information on stress fields and water flow pathways inside glaciers, conditions which are sensitive to temperature and precipitation. In this study, we analyse seismic data from 321 days recorded by five broad-band seismometers on Urumqi Glacier No. 1, Tianshan, China, to investigate the source characteristics of icequakes. We first apply a multidimensional autoregressive maximum-likelihood algorithm to detect 12 template events from 62 days of continuous waveform data. The centroid locations of the 12 template events are located using a grid-search approach. We then obtain a catalogue of 41   895 icequakes by compiling all seismic data through a template-matching method. The local magnitudes of all icequakes range between −3.3 and 0.5, with a completeness magnitude of −2.95 and Gutenberg–Richter b -value of 1.08. The particle motion and frequency contents of the 12 template events show that the dominant phases on the vertical component are Rayleigh waves at 5–40 Hz, suggesting that these icequakes were generated by near-surface crevasses. The average daily icequake number for each month and diurnal icequake variations show clear seasonal features. The icequakes may be related to growth of the surface crevasses due to additional melting water and precipitation in summer and to the thermal contraction of the ice body in winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the background of global climate change, the variation in the spatial distribution and ice volume of mountain glaciers have a profound influence on regional economic development and ecological security. The development of glaciers is like biological succession; when climate change approaches or exceeds the threshold of suitable conditions for glacier development, it will lead to changes in potential distribution pattern. Therefore, from the perspective of the "biological" characteristics of glaciers, it is a beneficial exploration and attempt in the field of glaciology to explore its potential distribution law with the help of the niche model. The maximum entropy model (MaxEnt) can explain the environmental conditions suitable for the survival of things by analyzing the mathematical characteristics and distribution laws of samples in space. According to glacier samples and the geographical environment data screened by correlation analysis and iterative calculation, the potential distribution pattern of Tianshan glaciers in China in reference years (1970–2000) was simulated by MaxEnt. This paper describes the contribution of geographical environmental factors to distribution of glaciers in Tianshan Mountains, quantifies the threshold range of factors affecting the suitable habitat of glaciers, and predicts the area variation and distribution pattern of glaciers under different climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP5-8.5) in the future (2040–2060, 2080–2100). The results show that the MaxEnt model has good adaptability to simulate the distribution of glaciers. The spatial heterogeneity of potential distribution of glaciers is caused by the spatio-temporal differences of hydrothermal combination and topographic conditions. Among the environmental variables, precipitation during the wettest month, altitude, annual mean temperature, and temperature seasonality have more significant effects on the potential distribution of glaciers. There is significant spatial heterogeneity in the potential distribution of glaciers in different watersheds, altitudes, and aspects. From the forecast results of glacier in various climatic scenarios in the future, about 18.16–27.62% of the total reference year glacier area are in an alternating change of melting and accumulation, among which few glaciers are increasing, but this has not changed the overall retreat trend of glaciers in the study area. Under the low emission scenario, the glacier area of the Tianshan Mountains in China decreased by 18.18% and 23.73% respectively in the middle and end of the 21st century compared with the reference years and decreased by 20.04% and 27.63%, respectively, under the high emission scenario, which showed that the extent of glacier retreat is more intense under the high emission scenario. Our study offers momentous theoretical value and practical significance for enriching and expanding the theories and analytical methods of the glacier change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, climate change has led to global warming, glacier melting, glacial lake outbursts, sea level rising, and more extreme weather, and has seriously affected human life. Remote sensing technology has advanced quickly, and it offers effective observation techniques for studying and monitoring glaciers. In order to clarify the stage of research development, research hotspots, research frontiers, and limitations and challenges in glacier mass balance based on remote sensing technology, we used the tools of bibliometrics and data visualization to analyze 4817 works of literature related to glacier mass balance based on remote sensing technology from 1990 to 2021 in the Web of Science database. The results showed that (1) China and the United States are the major countries in the study of glacier mass balance based on remote sensing technology. (2) The Chinese Academy of Sciences is the most productive research institution. (3) Current research hotspots focus on "Climate change", "Inventory", "Dynamics", "Model", "Retreat", "Glacier mass balance", "Sea level", "Radar", "Volume change", "Surface velocity", "Glacier mapping", "Hazard", and other keywords. (4) The current research frontiers include water storage change, artificial intelligence, High Mountain Asia (HMA), photogrammetry, debris cover, geodetic method, area change, glacier volume, classification, satellite gravimetry, grounding line retreat, risk assessment, lake outburst flood, glacier elevation change, digital elevation model, geodetic mass balance, (DEM) generation, etc. According to the results of the visual analysis of the literature, we introduced the three commonly used methods of glacier mass balance based on remote sensing observation and summarized the research status and shortcomings of different methods in glacier mass balance. We considered that the future research trend is to improve the spatial and temporal resolution of data and combine a variety of methods and data to achieve high precision and long-term monitoring of glacier mass changes and improve the consistency of results. This research summarizes the study of glacier mass balance using remote sensing, which will provide valuable information for future research across this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reconstructing three-dimensional palaeoglacier surface, thickness, and volume provides useful information for quantifying palaeo-climate conditions during glacial stages and assessing the impact of glacier change on water resources. A glacial flowline model has been implemented in Excel and ArcGIS to reconstruct palaeoglaciers based on digital elevation models and geomorphic constraints, such as moraines and trimlines that represent the margins and local heights of palaeoglaciers, respectively. However, significant efforts are still needed in using these tools for palaeoglacier reconstruction, such as digitizing flowlines, adjusting shear stress, and deriving shape factors. This paper presents an automated method, PalaeoIce, to reconstruct palaeoglaciers using geomorphic constraints. Coded in python, PalaeoIce is an ArcGIS toolbox with a set of tools to generate glacial flowlines, optimize shear stress, derive shape factors, calculate ice thickness values along flowlines, and interpolate palaeo ice surfaces based on geomorphic constraints. The use of PalaeoIce is demonstrated using extant glaciers with measured thickness values and moraines/trimlines of the Little Ice Age (LIA) and Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 in the eastern Tian Shan, China. The reconstructed ice thickness values of Glacier No. 1 in this area show a reasonable agreement with field measurements with 1.4 % and 5.4 % differences between measured and reconstructed mean ice thickness values using the two methods included in PalaeoIce: a revised ice thickness model for extant glaciers and a palaeoglacier reconstruction method based on glacier outlines, respectively. Two approaches are then illustrated for palaeoglacier reconstructions using two sets of geomorphic constraints: one with the fully reconstructed glacier outlines during the LIA, and the other with just the terminal moraine and limited trimlines during MIS 2. PalaeoIce can significantly improve the efficiency of palaeoglacier reconstructions and the understanding of the impact of glacier change on water resources. • An automated method, PalaeoIce, is presented for palaeoglacier reconstruction. • Tools are developed to create flowlines, modify DEM, and reconstruct palaeoglaciers. • Reconstructed ice thickness data are validated by field measurements in Tian Shan. • Target geomorphic features are of importance for palaeoglacier reconstruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glacier retreat in high altitude areas triggered by anthropogenic warming exerts a profound impact on the ecology of glacier-fed lakes. In this paper, we report on the results of a multi-proxy analysis of a Lateglacial (13.3–11.3 cal kyr B.P.) core obtained from the glacier-fed Kanas Lake in the Altai Mountains, China, to understand the responses of aquatic ecosystems to meltwater influxes. Core intervals with high sand fractions and enriched silicon dioxide and zirconium (~11.5, 11.7, 11.8, 12.2 and 13.0 cal kyrs B.P.) reflect intense meltwater pulses from alpine glaciers. In the core, these pulses generally coincide with low abundance of littoral cladocerans, high abundance of planktonic Pediastrum , and high phosphorus concentrations. Our results suggest that intense meltwater influxes not only brought nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) into the lake and promoted phytoplankton growth, they also generated cold, turbid water masses and restricted the growth of benthic algae and invertebrates. Therefore, we infer that future anthropogenic warming may lead to significant changes in the structure and function of aquatic ecosystems in glacier-fed lakes worldwide. • We study the impact of Lateglacial meltwater influx on the aquatic ecology of Kanas Lake, China. • Intense meltwater influx delivered nutrients to the lake and promoted the phytoplankton growth. • Intense meltwater influx also generated turbid and cold waters and restricted the benthic organism growth. • Future anthropogenic warming may lead to significant changes in aquatic ecosystems of glacier-fed lakes worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melt from supraglacial ice cliffs is an important contributor to the mass loss of debris-covered glaciers. However, ice cliff contribution is difficult to quantify as they are highly dynamic features, and the paucity of observations of melt rates and their variability leads to large modelling uncertainties. We quantify monsoon season melt and 3D evolution of four ice cliffs over two debris-covered glaciers in High Mountain Asia (Langtang Glacier, Nepal, and 24K Glacier, China) at very high resolution using terrestrial photogrammetry applied to imagery captured from time-lapse cameras installed on lateral moraines. We derive weekly flow-corrected digital elevation models (DEMs) of the glacier surface with a maximum vertical bias of ± 0.2 m for Langtang Glacier and ± 0.05 m for 24K Glacier and use change detection to determine distributed melt rates at the surfaces of the ice cliffs throughout the study period. We compare the measured melt patterns with those derived from a 3D energy balance model to derive the contribution of the main energy fluxes. We find that ice cliff melt varies considerably throughout the melt season, with maximum melt rates of 5 to 8 cm d -1 , and their average melt rates are 11–14 (Langtang) and 4.5 (24K) times higher than the surrounding debris-covered ice. Our results highlight the influence of redistributed supraglacial debris on cliff melt. At both sites, ice cliff albedo is influenced by the presence of thin debris at the ice cliff surface, which is largely controlled on 24K Glacier by liquid precipitation events that wash away this debris. Slightly thicker or patchy debris reduces melt by 1–3 cm d -1 at all sites. Ultimately, our observations show a strong spatio-temporal variability in cliff area at each site, which is controlled by supraglacial streams and ponds and englacial cavities that promote debris slope destabilisation and the lateral expansion of the cliffs. These findings highlight the need to better represent processes of debris redistribution in ice cliff models, to in turn improve estimates of ice cliff contribution to glacier melt and the long-term geomorphological evolution of debris-covered glacier surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inconsistencies in the Eocene climates of East Asia have been revealed in both geological studies and simulations. Several earlier reconstructions showed an arid zonal band in mid‐latitude China, but others showed a humid climate in the same region. Moreover, previous Eocene modeling studies have demonstrated that climate models can simulate both scenarios in China. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the cause of this model spread. We conducted a series of experiments using Norwegian Earth System Model 1‐F and examined the impact of mountains in Southern China on the simulated Eocene climate. These mountains, including the Gangdese and Southeast Mountains, are located along the main path of water vapor transport to East Asia. Our results reveal that the Southeast Mountains play the dominant role in controlling the simulated precipitation in Eastern China during the Eocene. When the heights of the Southeast Mountains exceed ∼2,000 m, an arid zonal band appears in mid‐latitude China, whereas humid climates appear in Eastern China when the elevation of the Southeast Mountains is relatively low. Key Points: Southeast Mountains control simulated Eocene precipitation in Eastern ChinaWhen the Southeast Mountains are high, an arid zonal band appears in mid‐latitude ChinaThe early Eocene climate in East Asia is not monsoonal climate [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spatiotemporal regimes of glacier runoff (GR) under a warming climate are of great concern, especially in dryland areas in northwestern China (DAC). Due to the difficulty of observing GR, little attention has been given to the spatiotemporal change in GR at regional scales. This study uses the regional individual glacier mass balance (GMB) dataset developed by digital elevation models (DEMs) to simulate the spatiotemporal regime of GR using atmospheric parameters considering both ablation and accumulation processes on glaciers. In this study, GR, including glacier meltwater runoff (MR) and delayed water runoff (DR) of the DAC, was quantitatively assessed at a catchment scale from 1961 to 2015. The total annual GR in the DAC was (100.81 ± 68.71) × 108 m3 in 1961–2015, where MR accounted for 68%. Most basins had continuously increasing tendencies of different magnitudes from 1961 to 2015. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and random forest techniques were used to explore the contributions of climate factors and glacier physical properties to GR, and the results indicated that climate factors could explain 56.64% of the variation. In comparison, the remaining 43.36% could be explained by the physical properties of glaciers themselves (i.e., degree-day factor on ice, degree-day factor on snow, glacier median height, aspect, and slope). This study not only improves our understanding of the spatiotemporal change in GR in the drylands of northwestern China at spatial and temporal resolutions but also highlights the role of physical properties in explaining the heterogeneous dynamics among GRs unlike previous studies that only emphasize rising temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the influence of climate change, the hydrological processes of glaciers have undergone significant changes, a fact which is seriously affecting agricultural production in the downstream region of the Tianshan Mountains, China. In order to explore the intrinsic relationship between climate change and hydrological elements, we proposed an "evaluation-driving-prediction" system to study it. First, we constructed a glacier-enhanced soil and water assessment tool model (GE-SWAT) and used a two-stage calibration method to optimize the model parameters. Next, a scenario analysis was used to evaluate the driving factors of historical runoff changes. Finally, we projected future runoff changes using bias-corrected regional climate model (RCM) outputs. The results of the case study on the Jinghe River Basin in the Tianshan Mountains show that from 1963 to 2016, total runoff increased by 13.3%, 17.7% of which was due to increasing precipitation and 1.8% of which was negated by rising temperatures. The glacier runoff increased by 14.5%, mainly due to the rising temperatures. A 3.4% reduction in snowmelt was caused by a lower snowfall/precipitation ratio, which significantly reduced the snowfall from June to August. The RCM projection indicated that the warming and humidification phenomenon in the study area will continue at least through to the mid-21st century. A consistent increase in glacier runoff and total runoff is projected, but the contribution rate of the glacier runoff will have little to no change under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 emission scenarios. Our research demonstrates the simulation performance of the GE-SWAT model in a basin with moderate glacier cover. This method is shown to be efficient in quantifying the impact of climate change on glacier hydrological processes and predicting future streamflow changes, providing a good research reference for similar regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As typical inland river basins in China, the Ürümqi River Basin and the Aksu River Basin were selected as study areas in this paper. In the past several decades, the climate has had a tendency to change from warm-drying to warm-wetting, with a coinstantaneous response by mountain glacier meltwater of these areas. Comparing questionnaire survey data with scientific observation, this study focused on the character of public perception on climate and cryosphere changes, the changes' possible impacts on water resources, and adaptation measure choices by the public. Results presented in this study showed that: 1) Perceptions of most respondents on climate and cryosphere changes conform to objective facts, but some of them still have suspicion relating to these environmental changes; 2) Even though increasing precipitation and glacier meltwater has caused an increased water supply, due to the increasing demand of the unit area water for agriculture (industrial and living water demand may be involved), water shortage is still a big problem in sustainable development. Because of unemployment or the inconspicuous benefits of water-saving measures, the wasting of water resources may be a serious problem in these areas; 3) Most people preferred to choose the adaptation measures implemented by government and policy-making departments. Some people showed more preference for measures avoiding unfavorable natural environmental consequences. Public perceptions on the urgency of individual participation are still inadequate. Some of the measures should be communicated broadly and warmly encouraged; 4) Public choices of adaptation measures for climate and cryosphere change are impacted by demographic factors such as age, gender, region, nationality, education and occupation. The impacts of such factors are complicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aeolian dust has a great influence on mountain hydrology, climate, and biogeochemical cycles. Dust deposited on glaciers and snowpack of the high alpine mountains in Tibetan Plateau (TP) and its surrounding regions can provide a unique method of determining the high-elevation transport and deposition of Asian dust in the middle and upper troposphere. Long-range-transported (LRT) Asian dust is often transmitted through the high troposphere, thus studies on dust deposition in the high-elevation cryosphere can reflect the LRT information of aeolian dust, and provide an unparalleled record to understand the regional climate and environment change in the "Third Pole" region. This paper comprehensively reviews the current status of the major factors that determine aeolian dust transport, settling, and cycling, and the key components of this dust cycles in high-elevation cryosphere regions, revealed by glacial snowpack and ice-core dust geochemistry recorded in the mountain glacier areas of TP and western China. Research on glacial dust concentrations indicated that much higher amounts of aeolian dust were found to transport and cycle in the high-elevation troposphere over TP and surroundings, compared to other locations of the globe. Dust concentrations and fluxes in high elevation regions of the TP were closely related to the transport distance of the nearby dust sources (e.g. large deserts and Gobi in western China, and arid deserts on the plateau surface). Isotopes tracers (e.g. 87Sr/86Sr, and ε Hf , ε Nd) and dust size distributions revealed that aeolian dust transported over TP mainly originated from the arid and semi-arid deserts and surface crust soils on TP; Aeolian dust from the large deserts of central Asia (e.g. the Taklimakan Desert with small ratio) have not been easily transported to the hinterland of TP under the current climatic conditions. An End-Member Mixing Analysis model was also used to calculate the relative contributions of northern hemisphere dust sources to the TP glacier dust sinks. The marked spatial differences in LRT dust sources of TP glaciers were caused by the large-scale atmospheric circulation strength and interactions in the Asian region. In addition, Asian dust has a large influence on the radiative forcing of glacier and snow melt in which the iron oxide composition constitute an important driving factor. Biogeochemical cycles in cryospheric regions were significantly affected by aeolian dust cycles, influencing glacial ecosystems, meltwater geochemistry (e.g. d Fe release) and nutrients supply for downstream aquatic ecosystems. Ice core records for the past hundred years revealed a general decreasing trend of dust storm frequency and atmospheric concentration over the TP region. This work provides new insights and perspectives on aeolian dust transport and cycling in high regions of the troposphere and cryosphere of the TP, identifying critical uncertainties and priorities for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to global climatic warming, the possibility of collapse of polythermal glaciers is increasing. In the summer of 2016, two massive glaciers suddenly collapsed at Aru Village, Ali District, Xizang Autonomous Region, China, running out up to 7 km and killing nine herders. These events occurred suddenly in a remote area, and quantitative data about them was difficult to obtain quickly. Their seismic waves, however, could be quickly inverted to estimate the event motion parameters; the inversion results reflecting the average state. In order to have an initial judgment on the deposit range and the kinematic parameters at different positions after the collapse, seismic-wave inversions were used to estimate parameters (e.g., mass and friction coefficient) for numerical simulation to quickly simulate the motion processes that are important for the initial rescue, especially in the absence of topographic data. Numerical simulation showed that even though the shape and depth of the source area as assigned from such inversion were slightly different from the real situation, the effect on the final deposit morphology was not so great, which can be used as a reference for useful assessment after future disasters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lakes play a vital role in keeping the balance of regional ecosystems and biodiversity. In regions such as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau with the fragile natural environment, lakes appear to be highly sensitive to climate changing. In the Golmud Basin, which is situated on the north edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, the interactions among lakes area variations, climate change and anthropogenic interference have not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we analyzed lakes area variations in the Golmud Basin using Landsat-TM/ETM image data from 1980 to 2015. Within the study period, the lakes in the area have undergone two cycles with four stages: expansion in 1980–1990, shrinkage in 1990–2005, expansion in 2005–2010, and shrinkage in 2010–2015 again. In 2009, the Qarhan Salt Lake was basically enlarged and connected to the neighboring small lakes, while Dabuxun Lake had its maximum area in 2010. From 2011 to 2015, East Taijinaier Lake was shrinking and nearly dried up due to excessive water, mineral exploitation, and human blocking the connection among rivers and lakes. Climatic data were analyzed via the Mann–Kendall trend test, and both annual temperature and precipitation in the Golmud City increased considerably. The Landsat-TM/ETM images showed that the mountain glaciers around the basin retreated from 1980 to 2015, resulting in the expansion of the lake area. The land use transfer matrix was used to obtain the changes in land use types; increasing water consumption and population growth are the main factors associated with decreased lakes area and vegetation cover. As an essential part of the ecological environment, lakes have a direct impact on the change of the ecological environment. This study provides a scientific basis for the evaluation of the ecological environment quality of the Golmud Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings are known as the Third Pole (TP). This region is noted for its high rates of glacier melt and the associated hydrological shifts that affect water supplies in Asia. Atmospheric pollutants contribute to climatic and cryospheric changes through their effects on solar radiation and the albedos of snow and ice surfaces; moreover, the behavior and fates within the cryosphere and environmental impacts of environmental pollutants are topics of increasing concern. In this review, we introduce a coordinated monitoring and research framework and network to link atmospheric pollution and cryospheric changes (APCC) within the TP region. We then provide an up-to-date summary of progress and achievements related to the APCC research framework, including aspects of atmospheric pollution's composition and concentration, spatial and temporal variations, trans-boundary transport pathways and mechanisms, and effects on the warming of atmosphere and changing in Indian monsoon, as well as melting of glacier and snow cover. We highlight that exogenous air pollutants can enter into the TP's environments and cause great impacts on regional climatic and environmental changes. At last, we propose future research priorities and map out an extended program at the global scale. The ongoing monitoring activities and research facilitate comprehensive studies of atmosphere–cryosphere interactions, represent one of China's key research expeditions to the TP and the polar regions and contribute to the global perspective of earth system science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glaciers have very different dynamic characteristics during the ablation and accumulation seasons. A dynamic model to study the flow of the Koxkar Glacier is used. Ice velocity, ice viscosity, and the stress variation at different depths were studied. The aim was to compare the change in the glacier’s physical characteristics with changes in air temperature, analyze the movement mechanism at different temperatures in different seasons, and identify why temperature is the main driving force of glacier movement and change. The results show that the surface stresses have similar trends in different seasons, and that the stress in winter is larger than that in summer. This causes the ice body to break and promotes crack formation. Ice viscosity has an obvious seasonal variation, and this is especially noticeable for near-surface ice viscosity. The stress at the bottom did not change much at different temperatures. This indicates that the stress at the bottom is mainly affected by glacier morphology, hydrological characteristics, and geothermal flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water resources provided by alpine glaciers are an important pillar for people in the arid regions of west China. In this study, the Hydrologiska Byrans Vattenavdelning (HBV) light model was applied to simulate glacier mass balance (GMB) and runoff in the Koxkar River Basin (KRB) on the south slope of Mount Tumur, in the western Tianshan Mountains. Daily temperature and precipitation were calculated by multiple linear regressions and gradient-inverse distance weighting, respectively, based on in-situ observed data by automatic weather stations (AWSs) in the Koxkar River Basin (KRB; 2007-2009) and four meteorological stations neighboring the basin (1959-2009). Observed daily air temperature and precipitation were input into HBV model. The runoff data in 2007/2008 and 2008/2009 were used to calibrate and validate the model in 2009/2010 and 2010/2011. Generally, the model simulated runoff very well. The annual glacier mass balance and runoff were calculated by the HBV model and were driven by interpolated meteorological data between 1959 and 2009. The calculated glacier mass balances were reasonable, and were compared with nearby glaciers. The results indicate the decreasing trend of mass balance in the Koxkar Glacier, with an average value of ablation of --370.4 mm.a--1 between 1959 and 2009. The annual runoff showed an increasing trend (5.51 mm.a--1). Further analysis showed that the runoff is more sensitive to temperature than precipitation in KRB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glaciers are recognized as key indicators of climate change on account of their sensitive reaction to minute climate variations. Extracting more accurate glacier boundaries from satellite data has become increasingly popular over the past decade, particularly when glacier outlines are regarded as a basis for change assessment. Automated multispectral glacier mapping methods based on Landsat imagery are more accurate, efficient and repeatable compared with previous glacier classification methods. However, some challenges still exist in regard to shadowed areas, clouds, water, and debris cover. In this study, a new index called the automated glacier extraction index (AGEI) is proposed to reduce water and shadow classification errors and improve the mapping accuracy of debris-free glaciers using Landsat imagery. Four test areas in China were selected and the performances of four commonly used methods: Maximum-likelihood supervised classification (ML), normalized difference snow and ice index (NDSI), single-band ratios Red/SWIR, and NIR/SWIR, were compared with the AGEI. Multiple thresholds identified by inspecting the shadowed glacier areas were tested to determine an optimal threshold. The confusion matrix, sub-pixel analysis, and plot-scale validation were calculated to evaluate the accuracies of glacier maps. The overall accuracies (OAs) created by AGEI were the highest compared to the four existing automatic methods. The sub-pixel analysis revealed that AGEI was the most accurate method for classifying glacier edge mixed pixels. Plot-scale validation indicated AGEI was good at separating challenging features from glaciers and matched the actual distribution of debris-free glaciers most closely. Therefore, the AGEI with an optimal threshold can be used for mapping debris-free glaciers with high accuracy, particularly in areas with shadows and water features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very small glaciers ( < 0.5 km 2) account for more than 70% of the total number of glaciers in the Qilian Mountains. Despite their total area and volume being small, they are important water resources in the Hexi Corridor. While glacier monitoring mostly focuses on medium-sized and large valley glaciers (e.g., Qiyi Glacier and Laohugou Glacier No. 12) in the Qilian Mountains, little is known about very small glacier mass balance in this region. This study presents a geodetic mass balance of six very small glaciers in the Hulugou Basin by comparing Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) C-band (2000) and airborne laser scanning (2012) digital elevation models (DEMs). The total glaciers' area decreased by 23.6% at a rate of 0.024 km 2 a - 1 and the geodetic mass balance was - 0.68 ± 0.11 m water equivalent (m w.e.) a - 1 from 2000 to 2012. Shiyi Glacier, as the monitored glacier in the Basin, had lost 10.9% of the surface area at a rate of 0.005 km 2 a - 1 and the geodetic mass balance was - 0.53 ± 0.11 m w.e. a - 1 for the period. Climatic variations over the last decade showed a pronounced increase in summer temperatures. The warmer conditions probably explain the glaciers mass loss observed in the Hulugou Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]