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Background: Bangladesh had one of the highest burdens of lymphatic filariasis (LF) at the start of the Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) with an estimated 70 million people at risk of infection across 34 districts. In total 19 districts required mass drug administration (MDA) to interrupt transmission, and 15 districts were considered low endemic. Since 2001, the National LF Programme has implemented MDA, reduced prevalence, and been able to scale up the WHO standard Transmission Assessment Survey (TAS) across all endemic districts as part of its endgame surveillance strategy. This paper presents TAS results, highlighting the momentous geographical reduction in risk of LF and its contribution to the global elimination target of 2020. Methodology/Principal findings: The TAS assessed primary school children for the presence of LF antigenaemia in each district (known as an evaluation unit—EU), using a defined critical cut-off threshold (or ‘pass’) that indicates interruption of transmission. Since 2011, a total of 59 TAS have been conducted in 26 EUs across the 19 endemic MDA districts (99,148 students tested from 1,801 schools), and 22 TAS in the 15 low endemic non-MDA districts (36,932 students tested from 663 schools). All endemic MDA districts passed TAS, except in Rangpur which required two further rounds of MDA. In total 112 students (male n = 59; female n = 53), predominately from the northern region of the country were found to be antigenaemia positive, indicating a recent or current infection. However, the distribution was geographically sparse, with only two small focal areas showing potential evidence of persistent transmission. Conclusions/Significance: This is the largest scale up of TAS surveillance activities reported in any of the 73 LF endemic countries in the world. Bangladesh is now considered to have very low or no risk of LF infection after 15 years of programmatic activities, and is on track to meet elimination targets. However, it will be essential that the LF Programme continues to develop and maintain a comprehensive surveillance strategy that is integrated into the health infrastructure and ongoing programmes to ensure cost-effectiveness and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: More than 80% of all smokeless tobacco (ST) products in the world are consumed in South Asia; yet little is known about their consumption behaviour, addictiveness, and toxic properties. This paper, for the first time, describes associations between salivary cotinine concentrations among ST users in Bangladesh and their socio-demographic characteristics and tobacco use behaviours. Methods: In a survey of ST users in Dhaka, Bangladesh, we purposively recruited 200 adults who were non-smokers but consumed ST on a regular basis. In-person interviews were conducted to obtain information about socio-demographic and ST use behaviours, and saliva samples were collected to measure cotinine concentration. Simple and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to test associations between the log transformed salivary cotinine concentration and other study variables. Results: The geometric mean of cotinine concentration among ST users was 380ng/ml (GSD:2). Total duration of daily ST use in months had a statistically significant association with cotinine concentration. Other ST use characteristics including type and quantity of ST use, swallowing of tobacco juice, urges and strength of urges and attempts to cut down on tobacco use were not found to be associated with cotinine concentration in a multivariable model. Conclusion: This is the first report from Bangladesh studying cotinine concentration among ST users and it points towards high levels of addiction. This warrants effective tobacco control policies to help ST cessation and prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To explore the experiences of women from three population groups of immediate skin-to-skin contact (SSC) with their newborn babies., Method: A mixed methods approach was adopted in a phenomenological study to elicit the experiences of English, Pakistani and Bangladeshi women. Audiotaped diaries, semi-structured interviews, photographs and video recordings were employed. Concept mapping was central to data analysis., Results: This paper reports novel findings that women contextualized and accepted secretions and bodily fluids from birth. This contradicts the beliefs of midwives that Asian women find bodily secretions abhorrent and culturally unacceptable. All participants reported positive experiences of SSC despite varying degrees of soiling from birth fluids., Limitations: The study was conducted in a single setting, and participants may not have been representative of others in their cultural groups. Third-party translation may have added an unsought layer of interpretation. The imposition of cultural expectations by peers in the recruitment process excluded some potential participants., Conclusion: Stereotypical assumptions about cultural background often characterize professional responses. When this stereotyping was put aside, women of all three cultures, whether breastfeeding or bottle-feeding, were able to enjoy SSC with their babies., Implications for Nursing and Health Policy: The findings suggest that changes will be needed in professional practice to be more open to women's expressed preferences, in local policy to ensure that choices are made clear and are available, and in national strategic direction to ensure widespread adoption of positive practices for opportunities to increase breastfeeding, promote parent-child bonding and support patient choice to be realized., (© 2014 The Authors. International Nursing Review published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Council of Nurses.)

Background: Incidence of community acquired pneumonia is high globally. In Bangladesh, more male children than female children are brought to hospitals for pneumonia. We examined if there was disparities in the severity of illness and outcome by sex among children who were admitted with pneumonia to hospitals in Bangladesh. Methods: Hospitalized children, aged 2 to 59 months, meeting a case definition of pneumonia were recruited in seven hospitals following parental consent. At baseline, study doctors obtained socio-demographic characteristics and care seeking behaviors for pneumonia, and then clinical data were collected throughout the hospital stay. Multivariate analysis was performed to determine if the sex of the child had a relationship with either illness severity on admission or outcome in the hospital. Results: Between May 2004 and December 2008, 6,856 children, including 35% females, were recruited. A total of 1,371 (19.9%) children had non-severe pneumonia, 4,118 (60.0%) had severe pneumonia, and 1,367 (19.9%) had very severe pneumonia. A higher proportion of hospitalized females had very severe pneumonia as compared to males (21.5% versus 19.1%; P = 0.01), but there was no difference by sex in the proportion of children with severe or non-severe pneumonia. There was no difference by sex observed in the clinical management provided in the hospital, but a greater proportion of females (4.7%) as compared to males (3.6%) died in hospitals (P = 0.04). In multivariate analyses, female sex was associated with very severe pneumonia on admission (OR: 1.26, 95% CI: 1.09–1.47) and fatal outcome in the hospitals (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.01–1.71). Death in female children admitted with very severe pneumonia was 4 times higher than that reported in males (OR: 4.37, 95% CI: 3.24–5.89). Conclusion: Our data demonstrates a sex-based disparity in the severity of pneumonia and deaths among children admitted to hospitals in Bangladesh, despite no existing disparity by sex in hospital treatment. These findings call for further investigations to explore the determinants of health seeking behavior by parents with children with pneumonia in a community that favors males to females, and to understand the role of differences by sex in childhood pneumonia outcomes in Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Antenatal care (ANC) has long been considered a critical component of the continuum of care during pregnancy, with the potential to contribute to the survival and thriving of women and newborns. Although ANC utilization has increased in over the past decades, adequate coverage and content of ANC contacts have fallen under increased scrutiny. The objectives of this article are to describe the coverage and content of ANC contacts in the context of rural Bangladesh. Methods: A community-based, cross-sectional household survey was conducted in two sub-districts of Netrokona district, Bangladesh in 2016. A total of 737 women with a recent birth outcome were interviewed. Respondents reported on the ANC contacts and the content of these contacts. Descriptive statistics were used to report coverage and content of ANC contacts stratified by covariates. Chi-square tests were performed to explore whether the estimates are different among different categories and significant differences were reported at p<0.05. Results: Around 25% of women attended at least four ANC contacts, with only 11% initiating ANC in the first trimester of pregnancy. Blood pressure was measured in almost all of the ANC contacts (92%), and abdominal examination performed in 80% and weight measured in 85% of ANC contacts. Urine tests were conducted in less than half of the ANC contacts, whereas blood screening tests and ultrasound were conducted in 45% contacts. Health care providers counselled women on danger signs in only 66% of the ANC contacts. Overall, the content of facility-based ANC contacts were better than home-based ANC contacts across all components. Conclusions: Adequate coverage of ANC remains poor in Netrokona, Bangladesh and important gaps remain in the content of ANC contacts when women attend these services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Accurate national information on dietary intakes, including heterogeneity among individuals, is critical to inform health implications and policy priorities. In low- and middle-income countries, household expenditure surveys constitute the major source of food data, but with uncertain validity for individual-level intakes. Objective: To investigate how individualized dietary consumption estimated from household survey data compared with individual-level 24-hr dietary recalls (24hR); and to assess potential heterogeneity by method for individualizing household intakes, dietary indicator, and individual characteristics (age, sex, education, religion, household income). Methods: We evaluated data from the 2011–2012 Bangladesh Household Integrated Survey (BIHS), which included household-level consumption data (5,503 households) and individual-level dietary data based on 24hR from these households (22,173 participants). Household and 24hR estimates were standardized and harmonized for 33 dietary indicators, including 9 food groups, total energy, 8 macronutrients, and 15 micronutrients. Individual consumption was estimated from household data using two approaches, the Adult Male Equivalent (AME) and per capita (PC) approach. For each dietary indicator, differences in household vs. individual mean estimates were evaluated overall and by strata of individual characteristics, using Spearman’s correlations and univariate and multivariate linear regression models. Results: Individualized household estimates overestimated individual intakes from 24hR for all dietary factors using either estimation method (P<0.001 for each), except for starchy vegetables (AME: P = 0.15; PC: P = 0.85). For foods, overestimation ranged from 4% for seafood to about 240% for fruits, and for nutrients from 11% for carbohydrates and poly-unsaturated fats to 55% for vitamin C, with similar overestimation for the AME and the PC method. By strata, overestimation was modestly higher in men vs. women, in children (0-10y) vs. adolescents (11-19y) and adults (20-44y, ≥45y), among adults of higher (≥6y) vs. lower (<6y) education, in Muslims vs. other religions (Christians, Hindus), and for the lowest vs. all other income groups. This overestimation was notably higher in young children (0-5y) vs. all other age groups and in the lowest vs. all other income groups. Underestimation was rarely observed, for example for milk intake (-56%) in young children (0-5y). The PC approach did not capture heterogeneity in validity of estimation of different dietary factors by age, mainly in children (0-5y, 6-10y). Spearman's correlations between individualized household estimates and 24hR data were higher for the AME (0.30–0.70) than PC (0.20–0.50) approach. Findings were similar with and without multivariate regression, with proportions of variance (R2) in 24hR intakes explained by the AME being generally greater than PC estimates, yet still low to modest. Conclusions: In this national survey, established methods for estimating individual level intakes from household surveys produce overestimation of intakes of nearly all dietary indicators, with significant variation depending on the dietary factor and modest variation depending on individual characteristics. These findings suggest a need for new methods to estimate individual-level consumption from household survey estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: In Bangladesh, postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal mortality accounting for 31% of all blood transfusions in the country. Although safe blood transfusion is one of the 8 signal functions of Comprehensive Emergency Obstetric Care (CEmOC) strategy, most of the designated public sector CEmOC facilities do not have on-site blood storage system. Emergent blood is mainly available from external blood banks. As a result, emergent patients are to rely on an unregulated network of brokers for blood which may raise question about blood safety. This study explored lived experiences of patients’ attendants, managers, providers, and blood brokers before and after the implementation of an on-line Blood Information and Management Application (BIMA) in regards to barriers and facilitators of blood transfusion for emergent patients. Methods: Data were collected at Dhaka Medical College Hospital (DMCH), a tertiary-level teaching hospital before (January 2014) and after (March 2015) the introduction of an online BIMA system. Data collection methods included 24 key informant interviews (KIIs) and 40 in-depth interviews (IDIs). KIIs were conducted with formal health service providers, health managers and unlicensed blood brokers. IDIs were conducted with the relatives and husbands of women who suffered PPH, and needed emergency blood. Results: Patients’ attendants were unaware of patients’ blood type and availability of blood in emergency situation. Newly introduced online BIMA system could facilitate blood transfusion process for poor patients at lower cost and during any time of day and night. However, service providers and service recipients were heavily dependent on a network of unlicensed blood brokers for required blood for emergent PPH patients. Blood collected through unlicensed blood brokers is un-screened, unregulated and probably unsafe. Blood brokers feel that they are providing a needed service, acknowledged a financial incentive and unaware about safety of blood that they supply. Conclusions: Ensuring safe and timely blood transfusion is necessary to end preventable maternal mortality. In a context where facilities have no on-site blood, and both providers and patient attendants are heavily dependent on an unregulated cadre of unlicensed blood brokers, access to timely safe blood transfusion is seriously threatened. BIMA is a promising intervention to reduce inefficiencies in obtaining blood, but steps must be taken to ensure buy-in from current purveyors of blood, and to increase the acceptance of the intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental enteropathy (EE) is a poorly understood condition that refers to chronic alterations in intestinal permeability, absorption, and inflammation, which mainly affects young children in resource-limited settings. Recently, EE has been linked to suboptimal oral vaccine responses in children, although immunological mechanisms are poorly defined. The objective of this study was to determine host factors associated with immune responses to an oral cholera vaccine (OCV). We measured antibody and memory T cell immune responses to cholera antigens, micronutrient markers in blood, and EE markers in blood and stool from 40 Bangladeshi children aged 3–14 years who received two doses of OCV given 14 days apart. EE markers included stool myeloperoxidase (MPO) and alpha anti-trypsin (AAT), and plasma endotoxin core antibody (EndoCab), intestinal fatty acid binding protein (i-FABP), and soluble CD14 (sCD14). We used multiple linear regression analysis with LASSO regularization to identify host factors, including EE markers, micronutrient (nutritional) status, age, and HAZ score, predictive for each response of interest. We found stool MPO to be positively associated with IgG antibody responses to the B subunit of cholera toxin (P = 0.03) and IgA responses to LPS (P = 0.02); plasma sCD14 to be positively associated with LPS IgG responses (P = 0.07); plasma i-FABP to be positively associated with LPS IgG responses (P = 0.01) and with memory T cell responses specific to cholera toxin (P = 0.01); stool AAT to be negatively associated with IL-10 (regulatory) T cell responses specific to cholera toxin (P = 0.02), and plasma EndoCab to be negatively associated with cholera toxin-specific memory T cell responses (P = 0.02). In summary, in a cohort of children 3–14 years old, we demonstrated that the majority of biomarkers of environmental enteropathy were positively associated with immune responses after vaccination with an OCV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]