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The article examines the concept of "athleticism," a belief in the importance of sports in moral education, in the 19th century educational philosophy of the British private schools known as endowed public schools. Athleticism held that sports, especially team sports, were highly effective in developing desirable qualities such as moral courage, loyalty, and the ability to cooperate. It is noted that a belief in the value of sports in education had been a tenet of British education for hundreds of years before the 19th century, but that period is held to represent the apogee of the influence of the idea. The ideal of athleticism, which was part of an educational philosophy broadly defined as liberal education, is contrasted with an increased emphasis in British society as a whole on occupational competence, creating a lesser role for the "gentlemen" who were the ideal products of the public schools.

The article examines the introduction of organized team sports as a mandatory part of the curricula of the British private schools known as endowed public schools in the latter half of the 19th century. Sports are considered as part of a larger reform of those schools, which previously had been known for both poor living conditions, harsh discipline, a culture of bullying and violence, and cases of actual rebellions against administration. The use of sports as an element of social control and social engineering to restore school discipline and create positive sentiments among students is examined. George Cotton, headmaster of Marlborough School, who took that position after a rebellion by students in 1851, is used as an example of an educator who used sports as a means of social control.

The article examines the 19th century educational philosophy of the British private schools known as endowed public schools. The idealistic statements of headmasters of those schools on the aims of education, which stressed the moral and ethical development of students, are contrasted with statements from former students of the period which depict a harsh environment where physical strength and ability to endure poor conditions were more essential than scholarship. It is argued that the stated concern of the schools for moral and religious education was used to hide a system based on social Darwinism, and that the headmasters and other educators were at pains to hide the fact from themselves as well as others.

The article examines poetry written by students and graduates of the British private schools known as endowed public schools during the late 19th and early 20th centuries prior to World War I. The poetry's themes are considered in terms of the educational philosophy of those schools, which stressed the development of moral and ethical values, with sports playing a vital role in process, over intellectual achievement and scholarship. Poetry which made the sport of cricket and its rules a metaphor for British civilization is considered. The poetry of a headmaster of a public school written to commemorate graduates who were killed during World War I is said to reflect mourning for the values of public schools, with their implicit endorsement of self-sacrifice, as much as grieving for the dead students.

The article examines attitudes towards sports, the idea of sportsmanship, and their role in society in Great Britain in the 19th century, focusing on sports in the private schools known as endowed public schools which were the foundation for the education of the country's elite and upper middle class in that time. The declining popularity of sports such as fox hunting and prizefighting, which were important sports of the early part of the century, and the rise in popularity of more organized team sports such as cricket, rugby and soccer are discussed. This change is considered as reflecting the need to make sports an element of social control, through the introduction of games with well-defined rules which required group coordination for success. This in turn is linked to a broader ideal of masculinity related to Great Britain's imperialism of the time.

The article focuses on the private schools in Great Britain known as endowed public schools during the late 19th and early 20th centuries prior to World War I. The concept of "athleticism," which was a belief in the moral benefits of organized sports in education, and which was a dominant aspect of those schools' philosophy as well as curricula in that period, is considered. The relationship between sports and British attitudes towards war among its upper and middle class is discussed. War poetry of the period is examined in support of the contention that the ideals of athleticism were quite consciously designed to complement militarism and stress the role of public school graduates in the defense of the British Empire.

The article discusses public education in Great Britain in the 19th century, focusing on the public schools known as grammar schools. The transformation of several such schools into the private schools known as endowed public schools is considered as a part of the trend of the spread of the idea of the so-called "games ethic," a belief in the importance of sports and physical education as part of curricula, throughout British education of the period. It is noted that failing grammar schools frequently became highly successful endowed public schools. This is attributed to the growth of the country's middle class, who were attracted to the values those schools represented.

The article considers the idea of imperialism as part of the educational philosophy of private schools in Great Britain in the 19th and early 20th century, particularly within the schools known as endowed public schools. Those schools were thought by imperialists to develop the sort of individuals who had the virtues and skills required to be successful administrators of Great Britain's colonies. It is noted that the most successful heads of those public schools in that period were themselves avid imperialists and firm believers in the mission of developing future leaders of the colonies. The creation and commemoration of the national holiday Empire Day is examined for evidence of songs, ceremonies and other propaganda devices through which this belief was communicated to the public at large.

The article examines the philosophy of education in Great Britain in the late 19th and early 20th century, particularly that of the elite private schools known as public schools, and how that philosophy was installed in the educational systems of Great Britain's colonies. The emphasis on both the physical and moral benefits of sports stressed by those schools is seen as one of the basic tenets of that philosophy, which stressed the development of a student's character more than the acquisition of knowledge. Colonial administrators of the period are cited in which this idea is explicitly stated. Accounts of education in British colonies in Africa are given to support the contention that the African students of the period had exactly the opposite view of their schooling, placing the acquisition of academic credentials far ahead of sports.

The article examines social conditions at the private schools known as "public" schools in Great Britain in the mid-19th century, focusing on the role of sports in school life. Quotations from memoirs of school life written by graduates are cited as evidence that harsh living conditions, poor and inadequate food, frequent corporal punishment and inadequate supervision leading to endemic bullying and other problems were common features of these self-consciously elite schools. Sports, particularly rougher sports such as rugby and soccer, were often developed as an alternative outlet for the fist-fighting among students which was a notable feature of life at the public schools until at least 1850. The Marlborough School is used as an example of the upper class public school of the period.

This paper builds upon an earlier analysis presented in this journal. Using official figures for school compositions and for outcomes at KS4 from 1997 to 2007, this paper considers each of the annual cohorts of new Academies in England, from 2002 to 2006. It shows that their level of success in comparison to their predecessors, national averages, their changing compositions and their changing exam entry practices are insubstantial. Of course some schools are gaining higher scores since Academisation, but others are gaining lower scores. Using the most recent results available there is no clear evidence that Academies produce better results than local authority schools with equivalent intakes. The Academies programme therefore presents an opportunity cost for no apparent gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]