Search

Although many studies have investigated links between maternal employment and children's wellbeing, less research has considered whether the stability of maternal employment is linked with child outcomes. Using unique employment calendar data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N=2,011), an urban birth cohort study of largely low-income families, this paper investigates whether the stability of maternal employment in early childhood (birth to age 5) is linked with child behavior and cognitive skills at ages 5 and 9. Employment stability (continuous employment over all 5 years, low levels of job churning, longer job tenure) was linked with less child externalizing behavior, but there was little evidence to suggest stability was particularly important for PPVT [Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test] and Woodcock-Johnson scores. Rather, for PPVT and Woodcock-Johnson scores, an increase in maternal employment in early childhood more generally was associated with higher scores.

This paper provides a structured overview of the existing parenting literature with the aim of developing an evidence-based and culture-sensitive framework of parenting and its influence on child development. The paper outlines how changes in the 21st century have altered family life and summarises evidence from 29 meta-studies and 81 quantitative studies for the developmental impact of different parenting styles and dimensions. Overall, results suggest that warm parenting that provides children with age-appropriate autonomy and structure is key for a healthy and prosperous development of children and adolescents across various domains. The parenting approach adopted by parents but also its effect varies and the paper points to various contextual (e.g. culture, socio-economic factors, support within the community and family) and individual (e.g. gender, personality and health condition of children and parents) factors explaining these variations. The paper discusses how a systematic consideration of such factors not only sharpens the scientific understanding of parenting and its impact but also helps improving family policies and support.

In December 2011, the Sierra Health Foundation board of directors approved a framework for a new youth development initiative. The framework built upon the foundation's recently concluded REACH Youth Development Program and incorporated findings and recommendations from the highly regarded "Healthy Youth/Healthy Regions" and "Renewing Juvenile Justice" reports released by the foundation earlier in the year. The "Healthy Youth/Healthy Regions" and "Renewing Juvenile Justice" findings also supported an important lesson that emerged from the REACH Program: While inclusive youth development approaches are important, one of their shortcomings is the likelihood for young people most at risk for poor health, education and economic outcomes to be unengaged. In response to this information, the foundation pursued a course of inquiry that sought to combine on-the-ground experience and research to design a program for youth who have experienced documented neglect, abuse and/or trauma, have been formally involved in the child welfare system and who currently are engaged in the juvenile justice system. Often referred to as "crossover youth," the initiative seeks to affect developmental paths--repeat criminal behavior, education failure, lack of employment experience, untreated trauma, social and familial disconnection--that have been shown to have negative long-term effects for this extraordinarily vulnerable population. The initiative seeks to set a new path for juvenile justice in California by establishing a vanguard of select county systems and leaders to produce what noted researcher Jeffrey Butts and his colleagues describe as "Positive Youth Justice." In seeking to foster this major shift in juvenile justice practice and policy, the risk of falling short of expectations is balanced with the fortuitous opportunity to improve the health and life chances of one of California's most vulnerable youth populations--youth with child welfare histories who are currently engaged in the juvenile justice system. Accordingly, this briefing paper describes the policy context in which the Positive Youth Justice Initiative will operate and presents the rationale for the targeted population and selected design elements.

The "Policy Matters" project provides coherent, comprehensive information regarding the strength and adequacy of state policies affecting children, families, and communities. The project seeks to establish consensus among policy experts and state leaders regarding the mix of policies believed to offer the best opportunity for improving key child and family results. The paper that follows presents a framework for policy options aimed at achieving a core result: safety and well-being for children with permanent families. Although there are many systems, policies, and programs that affect this outcome, this paper focuses primarily on state child welfare agencies and their partners, which include the courts and systems responsible for health, mental health, education and other related services. In Section I, the paper provides background on the challenges faced by children and families involved with the child welfare systems, and the challenges these systems face in trying to serve them. Section II of this report provides a conceptual framework and logic model that illustrate the connection between the desired outcomes for children and the policy recommendations in this report. Section III defines these policy recommendations in detail, including the available research and practice evidence that informs these recommendations. Taken together, the authors believe that the policies identified here present a powerful and compelling policy agenda for improving child safety and well-being as part of permanent families. Over time, they will continue to improve the recommendations as additional research and practice evidence is available. Future policy options may be modified to allow consistent tracking of state progress and to overcome data limitations. Thus, this paper presents a preliminary set of policy options. A goal of the "Policy Matters" work is to assess states' progress toward recommended policy options. The framework helps states think strategically about policy decisions that improve the safety, permanence, and well-being of families, and is designed to provide policy support and feedback to those interested in promoting improved outcomes for children and families. (Contains 431 endnotes.)

Rates of food insecurity in households with children have significantly increased over the past decade. The majority of children, including those at risk for food insecurity, participate in some form of non-parental child care during the preschool years. To evaluate the relationship between the two phenomenon, this study investigates the effects of child care arrangements on food insecurity in households with children. To address the selection bias problem that arises from the fact that enrollment in different types of child care is not a random process, this study uses propensity scores techniques. The authors compare outcomes across five child care arrangement patterns: no non-parental care (i.e., exclusive parent care), relative care, non-relative care, center care, and Head Start. Our results demonstrate that for low income preschoolers, compared to no non-parental care, attending a child care center reduces the probability of both food insecurity and very low food security, relative care reduces the probability of food insecurity, and non-relative care increases the probability of very low food security.

This paper concentrates on the impact of globalisation on childcare since the late 1970s, particularly in the last two decades. It looks at how our views about children, parents and public services have changed as a result. In particular, the paper examines the case in Belgium, where the consequences of globalisation are also analyzed in terms of quality and accessibility of services and the shifting power relations between the state, childcare providers, parents and experts in the field of early childhood education. In order to understand our present-day views on the services provided to young children and their families, it is necessary to have some historical context. The paper therefore also investigates how childcare institutions have emerged over the history of western Europe, with special emphasis on Belgium, before examining their evolution in a more international context, looking at recent research from different countries. The paper concludes by distilling the situation into three apparently contradictory situations, and asking if they can be resolved. (Contains 3 figures and 3 footnotes.)

Over the past 30 years, the political response to child maltreatment and its prevention has experienced periods of frantic activity, often followed by long periods of benign neglect. To an extent, this pattern reflects deep differences among child welfare advocates, researchers and practitioners on how best to proceed. While most everyone agrees that "it shouldnt hurt to be a child," how to prevent this hurt and at what cost is less clear. Significant tensions exist between the relative importance of treatment versus prevention and the appropriate role for public child welfare in protecting children and supporting families at risk. Efforts to resolve these tensions often involve child welfare agency directors and prevention advocates as combatants rather than allies. The absence of an effective partnership between all those involved in formal and informal child protection not only diminishes the potential impact of each response system but also leaves many children, particularly those in resource-poor communities, with few viable alternatives to mandatory child protection. This paper seeks to better understand the factors that have contributed to the absence of more integrated policy development and the opportunities that might exist for better future collaboration. Following a brief historical overview, the paper explores the logic, empirical evidence, and limitations for three strategic paths being promoted to construct a more inclusive vision for child welfare agencies. Specifically, the paper examines differential strategies for responding to child abuse reports, out-basing child welfare workers in community agencies, and establishing community partnerships for broadening responsibility for child protection. The paper concludes with a discussion of the additional research, practice, and policy questions that need to be addressed to more appropriately position the child welfare system within the paradigm of community child protection. (Contains 66 references.) (Author/HTH)

In state fiscal year (SFY) 2000, states expended at least $20 billion on child welfare services, 20 percent more than in SFY 1998. This increase occurred despite the fact that the number of children reported as abused and neglected and the number of children in foster care declined. This suggests that not only are child welfare agencies spending more money than they have in the past, they are spending more money per-child. Yet criticism of the performance of our nation's child welfare system has continued unabated. Many researchers and policy makers have argued that the existing structure of federal child welfare financing limits the ability of states to develop and implement innovative programs, services, and administrative reforms to address performance weaknesses. Over the past decade, a number of federal fiscal reform proposals have been introduced in Congress or floated around on Capitol Hill. Most recently, President Bush's FY 2004 budget proposed legislation that would offer states an alternative financing system that would provide for greater flexibility. This paper summarizes what is known about states' financing of child welfare services. The paper identifies commonly cited problems with the federal child welfare financing structure, describes and assesses recently proposed solutions, and questions how financing data can be used in assessments of state performance. (Contains 22 references.)(Author)

Issues connected with children's welfare and child development are appearing on national and international agendas with greater prominence and frequency. However, the international image of children is becoming increasingly homogeneous and Western-derived, with an associated erosion of the diversity of child contexts. This essay explores the reasons behind such a reduction in diversity, factors that are often considered to be a necessary part of progress. The authors conduct an overview of relevant critiques in the literature of early childhood development (ECD). The paper focuses on international ECD since the UN adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 and presents a review of key ECD developments in Africa since the early 1970s. Culture, context, and diversity are central concerns that have led to the development of several different critical streams of work within early childhood care and education during the 1990s. The authors describe some of these "reconceptualising" efforts and identify various areas of promise for future cooperative work. The second part of the essay represents an effort to move beyond the singular image of the "global child." The authors address the need to support and promote local perspectives, questions and issues, and trace the "triple heritage" of ECD in Africa. It is hoped that this section, and the essay in its totality, will contribute to a much-needed expansion of thoughts and ideas about early childhood, both in Africa and the rest of the world, and to an appreciation that diversity is a strength to work with, rather than an obstacle to overcome. The authors conclude that their role is to introduce a "stutter" into a powerful international narrative, thereby creating a space for other ideas and perspectives, in this case from Africa, to be heard and considered. They reiterate the need for the Minority World to help the Majority World in its quest for child well-being, by supporting Africa's efforts to hear its own voices and seek its own way forward. (Contains 3 footnotes.)

In "Beyond Fishing," the Kenya Community Development Foundation (KCDF) documents its experiences as a local capacity building and grantmaking organisation and describes how it supports community based projects in developing their organisational capacity. In recent decades, development organisations have been supporting capacity building mainly through training. In this they have often been influenced by the paradigm, "Give a man a fish and you feed him for today, but teach a man to fish, and you feed him for a lifetime." KCDF takes this paradigm a step further, moving "beyond fishing," and emphasising the importance of "helping the fisherman to gain access and increased control over all the resources to which he has a right." The first section of the Working Paper concentrates on the value of capacity building and grantmaking as a strategy for development in general. However, KCDF's work is also making a particularly meaningful contribution to meeting the goals of Early Childhood Development. In Section Two of the paper, KCDF explains its view on the value of a holistic development approach to improving the well-being of children. This is illustrated with a description of the work of KCDF with the Nyuat and El-barta projects, two of the Bernard van Leer Foundation's partner organisations in the Samburu district of Kenya. This description of KCDF's approach to development can be informative for readers working as programme staff, policy makers or academics, whose interests lie in finding ways to achieve local autonomy and participation. Funders and other development agencies will find that KCDF gives a useful description of the role that local grantmaking and endowment building can play in furthering community development; and of how a local community foundation can make a difference in this respect. Finally, the publication will appeal to a wide readership interested in concrete examples of integrated projects in support of the development of the young child. A glossary is included. (Contains 22 footnotes.)

In 2005, an estimated 48 million children aged 0-18 years--12 percent of all children in sub-Saharan Africa--were orphans, and that number is expected to rise to 53 million by 2010. One quarter of all orphans are orphaned because of AIDS, and about 2.6 million children are currently infected with HIV. Untreated, most children born with HIV will die before their fourth birthday, most likely in the first two years of life. UNICEF concludes that, although they represent a smaller percentage of all orphans, the youngest orphans are the least resilient and have the greatest need for physical care and emotional nurturing. Although it is recognised that the focus of support must be on all children made vulnerable by HIV/AIDS, including those living with sick parents or in extreme poverty, the youngest are often invisible to programme planners, despite their vulnerability. In response to the general awareness of the increasing number of these children, a global initiative to develop national plans of action (NPAs) for these orphans and vulnerable children (OVCs), or children affected by HIV and AIDS, has been launched. Between 2003 and 2007, a number of countries did a rapid assessment of the living conditions of children affected by HIV/AIDS and developed plans and costing estimates for appropriate interventions. The plans of 17 countries in sub-Saharan Africa were reviewed, comprising all of the high prevalence countries whose NPAs were finalised. The review found that there is a wide range in the developmental appropriateness of the plans within the 17 countries. The evidence suggests that there is a clear and significant trend over time for increased incorporation of developmentally informed perspectives into plans, with the more recent plans having many more components. This change has been influenced by a series of advocacy efforts by the early childhood development (ECD) community and the HIV/AIDS community. However, these plans remain vague and not well defined. More efforts are needed to ensure that they will in fact be implemented, and that there will be sufficient quality in the responses. A number of assumptions were noted in the plans, such as the belief that funds allocated to a family in general will go equally to all members of the family. As a result, the author makes the following recommendations: (1) Evaluate assumptions; (2) Provide adequate funding for the NPAs to include ECD measures; (3) Build the case with evidence; (4) Develop capacity in ECD at the country level; (5) Strengthen the role of the health sector for young children's development and develop new platforms for care; (6) Strengthen structures at local, regional, and national levels for an integrated approach; (7) Support women's rights; and (8) Link the NPAs with other plans in order to effectively implement them. (Contains 4 tables, 5 figures and 6 footnotes.)

This paper examines risk factors that exist in the lives of incarcerated parents and their children, focusing on the living arrangements of the children. It uses data from the 1997 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities to address three issues: risk factors present in the lives of incarcerated parents and their children, how children in some living arrangements might be more vulnerable than others, and whether these risk factors predict where a child is placed during the parent's incarceration. The paper begins by reviewing the literature on the effects of parental incarceration on children, then discusses how substitute care arrangements relate to child outcomes. Study results indicate that there are many risk factors in the lives of incarcerated parents and their children. Children are increasingly likely to be placed with someone other than a parent, and are particularly likely to be placed in foster or agency care, as the number of risk factors rises. For both mothers and fathers, four risk factors significantly relate to child placement in foster care or an agency (history of physical or sexual abuse, less than a 12th grade education, and welfare benefit receipt). History of mental health problems is not a significant factor. Some gender and racial differences are present. (Contains 92 references and 6 tables.) (SM)

The concept of social exclusion has been widely debated in Europe, though there has been little discussion of its application to children. This paper examines what is meant by exclusion of children, considering the choice of reference group, the geographical dimensions of exclusion, and the issue of who is responsible for any exclusion of children. It looks at social exclusion in the United Kingdom and in the European Union, then it goes on to discuss the use of the concept of exclusion in the United States, where in contrast to Europe, it has achieved little penetration to date. To assess whether there are grounds for discussion of social exclusion as it relates to children in the United States, the paper focuses on various features of U.S. society and institutions, including the measurement of poverty, analysis of children's living standards, state versus federal responsibilities, welfare reform, the emphasis on personal responsibility, and politics and the economy. (Contains 58 references.) (SM)

This paper summarizes a collection of papers in a special issue that examines what resources and capabilities parents likely to be affected by Temporary Assistance for Needy Families have; whether these parents are likely to be good parents; the nature of parents' relationships and whether they will be able to cooperate in raising their children; whether greater father involvement is good for mothers and children; the nature of local policy and labor market environments; how 1996 the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act is being implemented; and supports available to families outside welfare. Papers are based on data from a new study of "Fragile Families and Child Well-Being," which follows a new birth cohort of 4,700 children in 20 cities nationwide. These papers examine data collected from parents at birth in Austin, Texas; Baltimore, Maryland; Detroit, Michigan; Newark, New Jersey; Oakland, California; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Richmond, Virginia. The 13 papers (in two volumes) are divided into five sections on study descriptions and study questions; capabilities and circumstances of unwed parents; the effects of father involvement; parents' relationships; local policy environments in the cities; paternity establishment; and the effects of policies on family formation. (Contains 70 references.) (SM)

At the time the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (P. L. 104-193) was being debated, some child welfare advocates raised the concern that its effect on families at high risk of involvement in the child welfare system or on families already involved in the child welfare system would be negative. As the debate regarding the re-authorization of this act continues, an assessment needs to be made as to whether the original concern was well-founded. In Ohio, both the public child welfare and the public welfare programs are administered at the county level. A program of research was developed to examine one public child welfare system under conditions of welfare reform in one county, Cuyahoga County, in this state. The program is comprised of four inter-related but separate components: the Policy Study, the Caseload Study, the Cohort Study, and the Interview Study. These consist, in turn, of: an examination of the implementation of welfare reform in the county; an assessment of whether child welfare caseloads increased under conditions of welfare reform; an assessment of how changes in county child welfare caseloads were expressed at the individual level; and a study of the work and welfare experiences, as well as resources and needs, of biological mothers of children in foster care. The research program is non-experimental and, as a result, it cannot be used to show definitively that welfare reform causes any findings that were obtained. It is, by way of contrast, an in-depth case study, that relies on multiple methods, of the child welfare system in one urban county under conditions of welfare reform. This paper summarizes some important findings from this research program to date, in order to make the case that child welfare families have deteriorated under conditions of welfare reform. The number of children referred to foster care in the post-welfare reform period was, on average, higher each month than in in the pre-welfare reform period. In addition, a higher proportion of foster children remained in care 18 months post-placement, after welfare reform than before. Although the higher a child's mother's post-placement income, the faster her child returns home both before and after welfare reform, this effect is greater after welfare reform than before. Finally, although there are no comparable dates for both pre- and post-welfare reform samples of mothers, slightly more than half the mothers with children in foster care after reform were living in "extreme poverty," and many mothers of children in foster care have significant obstacles to employment. (Contains 46 references. (Author/HTH)

This paper presents findings from the 2001 Urban Institute Child Welfare Survey, which collected SFY 2000 expenditures. In addition to spending by source and by use, changes in spending between SFY 1998 and SFY 2000 are presented. This survey was designed to identify changes in child welfare spending following states' implementation of the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) of 1997 and the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996. Results indicate that the fiscal impacts of welfare reform on child welfare are clear, including a $1.4 billion increase in Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) spending. States spent at least $20 billion on child welfare services in SFY 2000; a 20-percent increase from SFY 1998. The federal share of total spending increased. Federal spending was 45 percent of total spending in SFY 1998 and 49 percent in 2000. Spending on adoptions, other services, and administration increased. Reliance on nondedicated federal funds (TANF, Medicaid, and Social Services Block Grant) continues. Welfare reform had clear impacts on child welfare financing during this time period. (Contains 13 references.) (SM)

The 1996 welfare reform act forced many poor parents into the labor market, with little understanding of how the parents' workforce participation would affect family life in general and their children in particular. In this paper, researchers examine the relationship between parental workforce participation, welfare receipt, and children's academic outcomes for a random sample of welfare mothers and their children. The findings show that children whose parents transitioned from not working in Wave 1 to working in Wave 2 were significantly more likely to be achieving academically--receiving As and Bs--at Wave 2. Parental employment at Wave 2 was not found to be a positive factor in all cases, however. Researchers found that children whose parents were employed in both waves were significantly less likely to receive As and Bs at Wave 2 than were children whose parents transitioned from not working to working. Researchers also found that receiving welfare during Wave 2 had a positive relationship with receiving As and Bs at Wave 2, which suggests that welfare payments may be a protective factor for families. The researchers argue that parental employment may be beneficial for children's academic achievement, particularly if families are able to continue receiving welfare benefits. (Contains 23 references.) (SM)

This paper reports the characteristics of women who have remained on Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) in Boston, Chicago, and San Antonio. Data come from the Three-City Study of 2,400 low income families with children. The study collected data on employment, income, family structure, and caregiver characteristics. Results indicate that these women have average employment rates of 18 percent and poverty rates of 85 percent. These compare to an employment rate among TANF leavers of about 60 percent and a poverty rate of about 70 percent. About 40 percent of stayers have less than a high school education, and many suffer from high levels of depression and domestic violence. These characteristics do not differ greatly from those of TANF leavers. They are more likely to report being in poor health than are leavers. Employed recipients have higher levels of education and better health than nonemployed recipients. They also have significantly higher income because their earnings are not fully offset by lower benefits. Nonemployed recipients nevertheless have higher incomes than nonemployed leavers, who have neither earnings nor TANF benefits. Two appendixes describe the Three-City Study and examine welfare policies in the three cities. (Contains 18 tables and 16 references.) (SM)

"Medicaid undercount" occurs when the number of people enrolled in exceeds the number estimated to be eligible for the program. One hypothesis proposed for this phenomenon has been inadequacies in the estimation of the number eligible for benefits, including health insurance status reporting error. This paper presents a methodology for calculating the number of Medicaid-eligible children by combining multiple sources of data, using as a case study Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. The analysis includes adjustments for undercount and uncertainty about the population size and income distribution. It finds that for most age categories and income levels, the number of children enrolled exceeds the estimated eligible population. It discusses three possible explanations for this apparent over-enrollment and speculates on the likelihood of severe census undercount of America's poorest children. (Contains 44 references.) (SM)

To provide a baseline for assessing how welfare reform affects child welfare agencies, this paper reviews the challenges that state child welfare systems face, and how states respond to these challenges. Information in this paper is based on studies of the 13 focus states included in the Urban Institute's New Federalism project. In each state, Urban Institute staff interviewed state and local child welfare administrators and front-line staff, legislators, interest groups, and state-based researchers. Site visits were also conducted. The first section of the paper documents the challenges child welfare agencies were facing when the welfare reform legislation passed, and the second section describes the intense scrutiny focused on child welfare systems. The third section describes how states have responded to both the challenges and the scrutiny, and the fourth section assesses the potential implications of welfare reform for child welfare. The final section discusses implications of the report's findings, especially as they relate to welfare reform implementations. (Contains 14 end notes and 75 references.) (SLD)

Over recent years, there has been an explosion in the collection of state and local level child and youth indicator data by federal statistical agencies and in the dissemination of those data through agency Web sites. This paper reviews these resources and provides information needed to access the data. Data sources are presented in five topical areas: economics and demographics (e.g., decennial Census and Census 2000 Supplementary Survey); health (vital statistics, disease surveillance systems, and health surveys); education (e.g., Common Core of Data and Schools and Staffing Survey); crime and juvenile justice (e.g., Easy Access System and Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement Databook); and child welfare (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System and Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System). Each section begins with an overview of what is available, including descriptions of data portholes that agencies have developed to facilitate access to data, and descriptions of individual data resources, including surveys, administrative data sets, and publications available on agency Web sites. Internet addresses to those resources are provided. Selected nonfederal sources are also briefly covered. An appendix presents a summary listing of federal Web sites containing indicator data on children and youth. (SM)

An Australian national task force examined a number of areas related to achieving educational equality for Australia's Indigenous peoples. This paper looks at health issues, particularly during ages 0-8, that may affect the educational outcomes of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. Chapter 1 discusses the importance of the early years of life in terms of brain development and future potential; the low educational attainment of Indigenous students and low Indigenous participation in early childhood services; population statistics; and the national policy context on Indigenous education, including national efforts to accelerate Indigenous progress and recommendations on interagency cooperation between the health and education sectors. Chapter 2 summarizes findings on nine health issues of concern: the lower life expectancy at birth and higher mortality rates at all ages for Indigenous Australians; low birth weight and failure to thrive; malnutrition and poor quality diet; high rates of infectious diseases and high incidence of educationally significant hearing impairment due to otitis media; social and emotional well-being; substance abuse; adolescent pregnancy; childhood trauma, including that related to family violence and child abuse; and childhood injuries. Chapter 3 describes Indigenous conceptions of health and well-being as encompassing family and community, and current initiatives that link community development and capacity building to childhood health issues. The appendix presents the Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the 21st Century. (Contains 43 references.) (SV)

This paper examines trends in federal spending on children, assessing changes in spending between 1960-97 and classifying federal programs within eight budget categories: tax credits and exemptions (including the Earned Income Tax Credit and dependent exemption); income security (including Aid to Families with Dependent Children); nutrition (including Food Stamps); health (including Medicaid); education; housing; social services; and training. Federal spending on children grew 246 percent, from $48.6 billion to $168.5 billion, while the number of children grew just 9.7 percent. In terms of gross domestic product, this growth in spending is just 11 percent. Federal spending on poor children increased 23-fold. Until recently, programs that put money into parents' pockets lost ground to targeted, in-kind spending. The dependent exemption declined from 65 percent of all federal spending on children to 16 percent. Three new programs account for half of the increase in total spending on children (Earned Income Credit, Medicaid, and Food Stamps). Nutrition and health programs rank third and fourth among categories of spending on children. Federal education funds shifted from targeting children of military or government personnel toward targeting disadvantaged children. Spending on children increasingly shifted from broad-based middle class relief to programs designed for the poor. (SM)

This study used data from the National Survey of America's Families to examine contemporaneous relationships between patterns of parent work and positive child outcomes among low-income families by focusing on how parents organized their work schedules, relationships between patterns of parent work and child wellbeing, and relationships between children of single versus married parents. Results, categorized by child age, indicated that most low-income children had at least one parent who worked full-time. In general, levels of parent work were not related to positive child outcomes, even when family income was considered. However, a few exceptions existed. High levels of parent work negatively associated with indicators of parent involvement among low-income preschoolers of single parents. How parents scheduled their work seemed most important for low-income, school-age children of married parents. For all children, positive outcomes were more strongly associated with both family and child characteristics than with patterns of parent work. Tables are appended. (Contains 16 references, 24 notes, and 7 tables) (SM)

This study examined findings from the 1999 National Survey of America's Families about primary child care arrangements for children under age 13 years while the adults most responsible for them are employed. It compared arrangements made by lower- versus higher-income parents and single- versus two-parent families and examines differences across selected states in 1999 and changes between 1997 and 1999 for the nation overall. Results found significant differences by family type. Preschool children with single parents, regardless of income, were more likely than their two-parent counterparts to use center-based care. School-age children with single parents were more likely to use before- and after-school programs than children with two parents. Within each of group, higher-income families used group-based programs more than lower-income families. Between 1997 and 1999, center-based care declined for preschool children as the use of relatives increased. Among school-age children, the use of relatives increased as self-care declined. While the economy prospered, low-income single parents' wages increased, welfare programs changed, and child care funding expanded in the late 1990s, types of child care accessed by low-income, single parent households with preschool children remained constant, while low-income, two-parent families with preschool children experienced shifts in distribution of arrangements. (Contains 10 references.) (SM)

This study used linked maternal-child data from the 1997-1998 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to explore the wellbeing of children born to teenage mothers. Two econometric techniques explored the causal impact of early childbearing on subsequent child and adolescent outcomes. First, a fixed-effect, cousin-comparison analysis controlled for unobserved family characteristics that might influence child outcome. Second, outcomes among children born to women who had miscarriages during adolescence were examined. Results found that teen childbearing played only a small, if any, causal role in children's performance on standardized tests, use of marijuana, and fighting. Pre-birth characteristics of teen mothers, birth order, and family size were more important factors in determining these outcomes. For grade repetition, early sexual initiation, and truancy, the fixed effects and miscarriage analyses produced differing results. Teen childbearing had no statistically significant results for any outcomes in the miscarriage analysis. However, results suggested that teen childbearing related to grade repetition, truancy, and possibly early initiation of sexual activity. Results indicate that teenage mothers share more in common with young women who have miscarriages than with their own siblings who delay childbearing. It is those commonalities that drive the zero-order association between early fertility and several negative behavioral consequences for offspring. (Contains 27 references.) (SM)

Noting that resurgence of the "orphanage" controversy has recently brought public attention to the child welfare system in Minnesota, this report notes that the child welfare system is not well understood and focuses debate on the needs of children who cannot live at home. Following introductory remarks and highlights from the text, the report describes characteristics of the Minnesota welfare system, including a discussion of the best interest of the child as the system's guiding concept, legislation shaping the system, licensing rules, and the continuum of care. Children entering the child welfare system are described and placement data for the year 2000 are presented. The report next discusses the needs of several child populations of concern: fragile infants with medical conditions, multiple problem children, older adolescents with a history of problems, homeless Native American youth, adolescents needing an acute care response in a hospital setting, and children in large sibling groups. Evidence from the child welfare field is presented to highlight that placement in large institutions is unsuitable for young children, that young children in family settings have better developmental outcomes, and that permanency is lessened under institutional care. The report then explores the possibility of educational academies as an option for older, intellectually competent children. A recommendation that a moratorium be enacted and a study of children's needs be conducted before large-scale institutions be considered for care of children unable to remain at home concludes the report. Appended are: Federal Policy Framework for Child Welfare Practice; Components of the System of Care; and Reviving the Orphanage Option for Children Who Cannot Remain in the Family: An Historical Note. (Contains 45 references.) (KB)

This report examines what factors, besides funding and eligibility, affect whether eligible low-income parents who know they can get a child care subsidy actually use one. Data come from subsidy agency administrators, child care experts and caseworkers, parents, and providers at 17 sites in 12 states in 1999 as part of a case study project. This report examines subsidy policies and practices that may affect the utilization patterns of eligible parents who want to apply for, or who already receive, subsidies. Results indicate that there are many subsidy policies and practices that make it difficult for low income eligible parents to access and retain the child care assistance they need in order to work. Eight chapters examine: (1) "How Parents Experience the Subsidy System: Overarching Administrative and Structural Factors"; (2) "Initial Access to the Child Care Subsidy System"; (3) "Retaining Assistance during the Recertification Process"; (4) "Retaining Child Care Assistance after Leaving Welfare"; (5) "Retaining Assistance through Changes in Employment Circumstances"; (6) "Retaining Subsidies during Changes in Child Care Providers"; (7) "The End of the Process: Termination from the Subsidy Program"; and (8) "Conclusions." Study data are appended. (Contains 33 references.) (SM)

This study examined changes in low-income children's living arrangements over time. Caregivers of children in Boston, Chicago, and San Antonio completed interviews in 1999 and then again 16 months later as part of the Three-City Study of low-income families with children. The percentage of children living with single mothers who were not cohabiting or married declined from 57 to 54 percent between interviews. The percentage of children living with mothers and their cohabiting partners increased from 8 to 10 percent, while the percentage living with mothers and their married partners increased from 26 to 28 percent. Virtually all cohabiting and marriage that began between the first and second interviews involved a mother and a man who was not the child's biological father. About 42 percent of mothers who were cohabiting at the first interview had ended the relationship by the second interview, and 16 percent had married. About 18 percent of mothers who were married at the first interview had separated by the second interview. Overall, 22 percent of children had experienced changes in their caregivers' living arrangement during the interval. Approximately 44 percent of parents who began cohabiting or were married between interviews had not received welfare since the passage of national welfare reform legislation in 1996. (Contains 28 endnotes.) (SM)

Using a national panel data set that links the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) with the NLSY Child data, this study examines the impact of homeownership on several child outcomes. Data analysis indicates that children of homeowners have better home environments, higher cognitive test scores, and fewer behavior problems than do children of renters. The study finds that these results hold even after controlling for a large number of economic, social, and demographic variables. Owning a home compared with renting leads to a 13 to 23 percent higher quality home environment. The independent impact of homeownership combined with its positive impact on the home environment results in the children of homeowners achieving math scores up to nine percent higher and reading scores up to seven percent higher, with reductions in children's behavior problems of up to three percent. These findings suggest that homeownership support programs should be targeted to households with young children. The measurement of the home environment questionnaire is appended. (Contains 61 references.) (SM)

In 1999, researchers conducted case studies on 12 states and multiple local sites to document how welfare reform and other changes affected child welfare agencies, following up on 1997 case studies. They conducted interviews with welfare and child welfare stakeholders and focus groups with child welfare workers. Respondents discussed the impact of welfare reform on child welfare and of direct challenges to child welfare. They emphasized continuing concerns about the quality and capacity of the child welfare system. In some states, these concerns led to the formation of commissions charged with assessing the child welfare system, while other states faced legal action. Respondents noted that frequent child welfare leadership changes affected child welfare priorities and agency responses to various situations. The mission of child welfare agencies continued to fluctuate between focusing on family preservation and on child safety as a top priority. One way that both federal and state governments sought to improve the child welfare system was by increasing oversight and making agencies more accountable for outcomes. Respondents acknowledged that most systems lacked sufficient resources to protect and serve children and families adequately. Child welfare workers reported that they have more clerical work, less decision-making authority, and less time to spend with children and families. (Contains 21 references.) (SM)

Advocates, policymakers, and researchers have predicted that changes in the welfare system brought about by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 would increase the number of children who are abused and neglected, referred to child protective services, and placed in foster care. This study examined how welfare reform has affected child welfare caseloads, summarizing trends in caseload data before and after welfare reform. It focused on testimonial data from various state and local respondents about the effects of welfare reform they have observed on families' involvement with the child welfare system, and it documented research efforts underway to study the effects of welfare reform on child welfare. Overall, there was no evidence to suggest that federal welfare reform to date has had a significant effect on child welfare caseloads. Caseload data and testimony of over 350 state and local respondents supported this conclusion. The study identified potential areas of concern for policymakers related to: specific populations that may be vulnerable; unmet training needs of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families and child welfare agency staff; the potential effects of additional sanctions and time limits; and the scope of the research underway and planned to assess the effects of welfare reform. An appendix presents findings from other welfare reform studies. (Contains 60 references.) (SM)

Given recent changes to child welfare financing brought about by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, there is a need to track spending for child welfare services. This report documents states' total child welfare spending from federal, state, and local sources in state fiscal year (SFY) 1998; changes in total spending since SFY 1996; changes in federal, state, and local spending since SFY 1996; states' spending on contracted services in SFY 1998; and how funds were used for out-of-home placements, adoption, administration, or other services. Data come from the 1997 and 1999 Child Welfare Surveys. States provided expenditure data for programs, case management, administration, and operation of child welfare systems. These data included staffing and administrative expenses and expenditures on services provided by other agencies under contract to the child welfare agency. States also provided expenditure data from federal, state, and local resources and categorized how funds were used. Overall, states expended at least $15.6 billion on child welfare services in SFY 1998; states were increasing their claims for Title IV-E funds; little funding was targeted for prevention services; states' heavy reliance on nontraditional federal funds for child welfare continued; within out-of-home placements, the focus of state-only funds had shifted; reliance on local spending was increasing; and states expended at least $3.4 billion on contracted services in SFY 1998. (SM)

This report tests the hypothesis that strong child support collection is associated with lower welfare caseloads. It uses annual state panel data from 1980-96 to replicate previous models and incorporate the effects of child support. The primary analysis technique is fixed effects regression of welfare caseloads with welfare caseloads as the dependent variable, and child support, demographic, economic, welfare, and political variables as independent variables. The key independent variable is the strength of the state's child support enforcement system. Results indicate that child support plays a moderate to large, and hitherto unrecognized, role in reducing welfare caseloads. Specifically, depending on the model, estimates imply that the improvement in child support collection between 1980-96 reduced welfare caseloads by 12-17 percent in 1996. The inclusion of child support largely improves the ability to explain the change in welfare caseloads that would not be explained by welfare and/or economic factors alone, although it also somewhat decreases the estimated effect of those other factors. (Contains 37 references.) (SM)

The barriers that poor fathers face in paying child support and how existing programs assist them were studied and contrasted to the barriers faced by poor custodial mothers using data from the National Survey of America's Families (NSAF). Efforts to serve these fathers through Temporary Assistance for Needy Families welfare-to-work grants, and demonstration grants are also discussed. According to the NSAF, 2.6 million nonresident fathers have family incomes below the poverty line, and most of them face multiple employment barriers, including a criminal record, lack of a high school education, relatively little recent work experience, and poor health. Although these employment barriers are similar to those faced by poor custodial mothers, poor nonresident fathers are significantly less likely than poor custodial mothers to participate in training, education, and job search activities as well as income security programs. Given that Congress expects poor nonresident fathers to contribute financial support to their children, it may want to consider making employment services and work-support programs more available to poor nonresident fathers. An appendix discussions developing weights for nonresident fathers. (Contains 2 tables, 6 figures, 15 endnotes, and 15 references.) (Author/SLD)

This study examines the extent to which children enjoy regular contact and financial support from their noncustodial parents. It also looks at the extent to which children who have a parent living elsewhere and their custodians are financially dependent on child support. Data are from the National Survey of America's Families. In this survey, data were collected in 1997 from nearly 45,000 nationally representative households. Slightly more than half of all children eligible for child support receive any support from their noncustodial parents, and only a third see their noncustodial parents as often as once a week. Only half have child support orders, but even children with orders do not receive the full ordered amount. Children with a parent living elsewhere are three times as likely to be poor. Poor children are particularly unlikely to receive child support, but when they do receive it, child support constitutes, on average, a quarter of their family's income. Child support decreases the level of income inequality among children with a parent living elsewhere. (Contains 4 tables, 4 figures, 13 end notes, and 8 references.) (SLD)

Recognizing the vulnerability of working children to possible exploitation and abuse, this report examines remunerated and unremunerated work performed by children worldwide, ranging from child labor in factories and agriculture to work conducted within the family household. Section 1 of the report describes the scale and importance of children's work, considers children's work within the context of childhood, and focuses on the ethical debate regarding children's work. Section 2 discusses the causes of children working, including macro-level poverty and inequality, household poverty, social attitudes, and biases against girls' education. Section 3 assesses the costs and benefits of child work. Section 4 describes interventions to address poverty, improve children's working conditions, regulate or eliminate child work, and increase working children's participation in education. Section 5 details 10 recommendations for improving the lives of working children: (1) measuring impact of interventions; (2) obtaining working children's participation; (3) incorporating micro-macro linkages in programming; (4) combining intervention approaches; (5) developing more precise criteria to assess risks and hazards; (6) defining exploitation; (7) reviewing institutional issues to identify ways to improve coordination between different actors in relation to child work; (8) continuing social impact assessment; (9) awareness-raising; and (10) continuing research on child work. The appendices discuss a framework and criteria for assessing interventions, the nature of hazards and the forms of exploitation faced by working children, and international legislation relating to child labor. Contains 102 references. (Author/KB)