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In Germany, there are over 32,000 schools, representing great potential for climate protection. On the one hand, this applies to educational work, as understanding the effects of climate change and measures to reduce GHG emissions is an important step to empower students with knowledge and skills. On the other hand, school buildings are often in bad condition, energy is wasted, and the possibilities for using renewable energies are hardly used. In our "Schools4Future" project, we enabled students and teachers to draw up their own CO2 balances, identify weaknesses in the building, detect wasted electricity, and determine the potential for using renewable energies. Emissions from the school cafeteria, school trips, and paper consumption could also be identified. The fact that the data can be collected by the students themselves provides increased awareness of the contribution made to the climate balance by the various school areas. The most climate-friendly school emits 297 kg whilst the school with the highest emissions emits over one ton CO2 per student and year. Our approach is suitable to qualify students in the sense of citizen science, carry out a scientific investigation, experience self-efficacy through one's own actions, and engage politically regarding their concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment of emission factors for many peatlands is difficult, and reliable data on the exchange of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) between soil and atmosphere of these areas is particularly scarce. Reasons for this are the multitude of soil and land use combinations that control greenhouse gas exchange and the high effort associated with data acquisition. We investigated the greenhouse gas exchange of a peat bog restoration sequence over a period of 2 yr (July 2007-June 2009) in an Atlantic raised bog in Northwest Germany. We set up three sites representing different land use intensities: intensive grassland (mineral fertilizer, cattle manure and 4-5 cuts per year); extensive grassland (no fertilizer or manure, maximal 1 cutting per year); near-natural peat bog (almost no anthropogenic influence). We obtained seasonal and annual estimates of greenhouse gas exchange based on closed chamber measurements. CH4 and N2O fluxes were recorded bi-weekly, CO2 NEE determinations were carried out 3-4 weekly. To get annual sums the CH4 and N2O fluxes were interpolated linearly while NEE was modelled. The intensive grassland site emitted 548±169gCO2-Cm-2 in the first and 817±140gCO2-Cm-2 in the second year. The extensive grassland site showed a slight uptake in the first year (-148 ± 143gCO2-Cm-2), and a small emission of 88±146gCO2-Cm-2 in the second year. In contrast to these agriculturally used sites, the near-natural site took up CO2-C in both years(-8±68gCO2-Cm-2 and -127±53gCO2-Cm-2). Under consideration of N2O and CH4 exchange, the total average greenhouse warming potential (GWP) for 2008 amounts to 441 ±157gm-2,14±152gm-2 and 31 ±68gm-2 CO2-C-equivalent for the intensive grassland, the extensive grassland and the near-natural site, respectively. Despite inter-annual variability, rewetting contributes considerably to mitigating GHG emission from formerly drained peatlands. Already extensively used grassland on moderately drained peat approaches the carbon sequestration potential of near-natural sites, albeit it may oscillate between being a small sink and being a small source depending on interannual climatic variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction industry is one of the biggest sources of greenhouse gas emissions. In view of resource scarcity, climate change, and rapid global population growth, the industry faces the urgent challenge of a sustainable transition. The renaissance of timber as a renewable, carbon-neutral construction material could pave the way for more sustainable modes of building. Taking France and Germany as examples, and based on a sociological discourse analysis, this paper reveals four different and conflicting sociotechnical imaginaries of the future built environment. The four imaginaries show specific characteristics depending on the respective national, political, and cultural contexts. Moreover, they include partially incompatible objectives and compete for discursive hegemony, and thus implementation. Scrutinizing the four competing visions and their approach to conflicts and scarcities raises profound questions about their political, technological, ecological, and social implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and urbanization have altered regional hydro-environments. Yet, the impact of future changes on the pollution risk and associated mitigation strategies requires further exploration. This study proposed a hydraulic and water-quality modeling framework, to investigate the spatiotemporal characteristics of pollution risk mitigation by low impact development (LID) strategies under future Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) scenarios. Results demonstrated that the LID strategies exhibited an effective performance of pollutant removal in the current hydro-environment, with the removal rates ranging from 33% to 56%. In future climate and urbanization scenarios, the LID performance declined and turned to be uncertain as the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions increased, with the removal rates ranging from 12% to 59%. Scenario analysis suggested that the LID performance was enhanced by a maximum of 73% through the diversified implementation of LID practices, and the performance uncertainty was reduced by a maximum of 67% through the increased LID deployment. In addition, comparative analysis revealed that the LID strategies in a well-developed region (Dresden, Germany) were more resilient in response to changing environments, while the LID strategy in a high-growth region (Chaohu, China) exhibited a better pollutant removal performance under low-GHG scenarios. The methods and findings in this study could provide additional insights into sustainable water quality management in response to climate change and urbanization., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The quantification of emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants through the inversion of plumes in satellite images remains a complex problem that current methods can only assess with significant uncertainties. The anticipated launch of the CO2M (Copernicus Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Monitoring) satellite constellation in 2026 is expected to provide high-resolution images of CO2 (carbon dioxide) column-averaged mole fractions (XCO2), opening up new possibilities. However, the inversion of future CO2 plumes from CO2M will encounter various obstacles. A challenge is the low CO2 plume signal-to-noise ratio due to the variability in the background and instrumental errors in satellite measurements. Moreover, uncertainties in the transport and dispersion processes further complicate the inversion task. To address these challenges, deep learning techniques, such as neural networks, offer promising solutions for retrieving emissions from plumes in XCO2 images. Deep learning models can be trained to identify emissions from plume dynamics simulated using a transport model. It then becomes possible to extract relevant information from new plumes and predict their emissions. In this paper, we develop a strategy employing convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to estimate the emission fluxes from a plume in a pseudo- XCO2 image. Our dataset used to train and test such methods includes pseudo-images based on simulations of hourly XCO2 , NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), and wind fields near various power plants in eastern Germany, tracing plumes from anthropogenic and biogenic sources. CNN models are trained to predict emissions from three power plants that exhibit diverse characteristics. The power plants used to assess the deep learning model's performance are not used to train the model. We find that the CNN model outperforms state-of-the-art plume inversion approaches, achieving highly accurate results with an absolute error about half of that of the cross-sectional flux method and an absolute relative error of ∼ 20 % when only the XCO2 and wind fields are used as inputs. Furthermore, we show that our estimations are only slightly affected by the absence of NO2 fields or a detection mechanism as additional information. Finally, interpretability techniques applied to our models confirm that the CNN automatically learns to identify the XCO2 plume and to assess emissions from the plume concentrations. These promising results suggest a high potential of CNNs in estimating local CO2 emissions from satellite images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the current and prospective greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of e-fuels produced via electrolysis and Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS) for the years 2021, 2030, and 2050 for use in Germany. The GHG emissions are determined by a scenario approach as a combination of a literature-based top-down and bottom-up approach. Considered process steps are the provision of feedstocks, electrolysis (via solid oxide co-electrolysis; SOEC), synthesis (via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis; FTS), e-crude refining, eventual transport to, and use in Germany. The results indicate that the current GHG emissions for e-fuel production in the exemplary export countries Saudi Arabia and Chile are above those of conventional fuels. Scenarios for the production in Germany lead to current GHG emissions of 2.78–3.47 kgCO2-eq/L e-fuel in 2021 as the reference year and 0.064–0.082 kgCO2-eq/L e-fuel in 2050. With a share of 58–96%, according to the respective scenario, the electrolysis is the main determinant of the GHG emissions in the production process. The use of additional renewable energy during the production process in combination with direct air capture (DAC) are the main leverages to reduce GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Climate Law sets a legally binding target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. In this regard, in 2023 the EU Environmental Council decided that from 2035 onwards only CO2‐neutral new cars will be licensed in the European Union. Simultaneously, since the energy crisis caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, fuel prices increased in Germany. This has made more and more households think about purchasing an e‐car. However, not every household has the opportunity to install their own wallbox, and when travelling long distances, e‐car users are dependent on the availability of ample public charging stations. Against this background, with a special focus on rural areas, this paper considers the questions whether and where spatial inequalities in the accessibility of public charging stations might currently exist. To approach these questions, based on an empirical analysis of the 2023 official location data of public charging points in Germany, we examine the nationwide distribution, accessibility and available capacity of public charging stations in Germany at small‐scale from the point of view of the 'household' as well as those who travel by e‐car within Germany. In order to evaluate the location data of public charging stations we mainly use raster‐based accessibility analysis methods as well as isotropic kernel intensity estimates. We found that, in contrast to the common belief, the network of public charging stations is quite dense. However, taking a closer look reveals that the charging infrastructure in Germany has so far been tailored to the needs of intra‐regional travelers (commuting, shopping, leisure) rather than to those of the residential population with no access to their own wallbox (daily recharging in close proximity to one's home) or the mid‐ to long‐distance travelers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an ongoing process that greenhouse gas emissions of transport will be incorporated in the European Emissions Trading System. The cap-and-trade approach will result in substantial price increases for fossil fuels which will affect affordability of the transport systems. Within this paper the regressive effect on car-owning households is described in different area categories of the urban and rural region in Germany. Equal-per-household redistribution of the carbon revenue could reverse the regressive effect into a progressive effect. However, there is substantial variation within the different economic status groups leaving notable shares of households with a very low economic status without a positive net transfer. This share will be lowest in the metropolises of the urban region and highest in small-sized cities/village areas of the urban and rural region. Particularly in the latter area categories, these households may need temporary mobility allowances due to limited abatement options. Despite the environmental bonus, electric car-owning households still belong to groups of higher economic status, and public transport supply is limited, particularly in the small-sized cities/village areas of the urban and rural region. • The financial burden of transport carbon pricing varies by the economic status of households. • Within all economic status groups, the financial burden varies also by area categories. • Equal-per-household-payments could turn the regressive effect of carbon pricing progressive. • Yet some households with a very low economic status may still need temporary mobility allowances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing Sphagnum on rewetted bogs (=Sphagnum paludiculture) is an alternative to drainage-based land use because it retains its value as productive land while mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, studies on GHG exchange covering the full production system and cycle are missing. Here, we combined data of the establishment phase with newly recorded data of a 7-year old Sphagnum paludiculture site in Germany including partial Sphagnum harvest. GHGs were measured with closed chambers at all elements of the system (production fields, ditches, causeways). Over the full production cycle, the production fields were GHG sinks with -3.2 ± 4.2 t ha -1  a -1 (in CO 2 -eq), while ditches represented sources emitting 13.8 ± 11.5 t ha -1  a -1 . New measurements on the causeway indicated that it was a stronger GHG source with 29.3 ± 9.8 t ha -1  a -1 than previously assumed from literature values. Corrected for the area share of its elements and including the partial Sphagnum harvest (in dry mass) of ~13.8 ± 0.6 t ha -1 (=average 7-year CO 2 emissions of 3.3 ± 0.1 t ha -1  a -1 ), the site was a GHG source of 10.7 ± 4.6 t ha -1  a -1 , thus reducing emissions by ~20 t ha -1  a -1 compared to the German emission factor for grassland on drained organic soils. Per ton harvested dry biomass, the paludiculture site emitted 9.9 ± 4.6 t of CO 2 -eq. The causeways were the major contributor to the warming, calling for reducing causeway area in Sphagnum paludicultures. Future 'best-practice' could realistically comprise areal shares of 80 % production fields, 5 % ditches, 15 % causeways and a full Sphagnum harvest with the uppermost 5 cm remaining on site for recovery. In this scenario the site would emit CO 2 -eq emissions of 4.3 ± 1.9 t ha -1  a -1 or 0.9 ± 2.1 t per ton harvested dry mass., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: The healthcare sector is responsible for 5.2% of CO2 emissions in Germany. The prescribing of medicines is a significant contributor. Among the prescribed medicines, metered dose inhalers (MDIs) play a decisive role due to the propellant gases they contain. A relevant reduction in emissions is possible by switching to dry powder inhalation systems (DPI). Aim: The guideline "Climate-conscious prescribing of inhalants" is intended to provide assistance in the prescribing of inhaled medicines by summarising the available evidence on the decision between DPI and MDI and explicitly addressing the aspect of climate damage caused by propellants. It addresses everyone involved in prescribing and counselling those affected. Materials and methods: The S2k guideline was drawn up under the joint leadership of DEGAM (German College of General Practitioners and Family Physicians) and the German Society for Pneumology and Respiratory Medicine (DGP) under moderation of the AWMF (Association of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany). The main contents from a practical perspective are presented in this paper. Results: Overall, MDIs account for a high proportion of inhaler prescriptions in Germany. The aspects of climate damage should be considered when prescribing MDIs. In order to facilitate implementation in practice, several decision aids were developed. Conclusion: The guideline is the first to address the importance of prescribing a group of medicines in relation to climate change. The degree of implementation of the guideline recommendations can be determined by future analyses of prescription data. A planned practical test is required to check the acceptance of the decision aids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Climate change is already having an impact on global health and will continue to do so even more. Heat waves and extreme weather events are only part of the impact. Adapting health services to these threats is only partially possible, so another focus should be on mitigating climate change by minimising greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, health care can play an important role. However, evidence about greenhouse gas emission hotspots and alternative action to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions is needed for the shift to a climate-friendly health system., Methods: In this paper, the greenhouse gas emissions of an outpatient care service will be calculated. On the one hand, focal points of the emissions will be identified and the effects of climate-friendly measures calculated. In order to calculate a comprehensive footprint, a hybrid approach was chosen in which emissions from electricity, gas and fuels are determined on the basis of quantities, and emissions resulting from the production of consumer goods are calculated using cost-based emission factors. The expenditure and consumption data required come from a care service in Lower Saxony providing for 132 people in need of care., Results: The outpatient care service emitted a total of 37,258 kg CO 2 eq in 2018, i.e. roughly 282 kg CO 2 eq per year and person in need of care. The production (15%) and combustion of fuels (68%) accounted for the largest share of 73%. By switching to diesel vehicles, the care service could save 7% of the annual greenhouse gas emissions and by switching to electric vehicles up to 30%., Discussion: The study shows that the outpatient care service produces greenhouse gas emissions of about 282 kg CO 2 eq per year and person in need of care, which is a relevant amount given the average per capita emission of 7.9 kg CO 2 in Germany. However, these emissions can be reduced by more than half by making the relatively easy switch to electric cars. Limitations of the study relate to potential inaccuracies of the cost-based emission factors and the lack of information about the kilometers driven and the fuel consumed., Conclusion: The majority of the emissions of an ambulatory care service comes from the production and combustion of fuels. However, this source can be significantly reduced by switching to modern technologies. To validate the results of this study, further studies should be conducted, preferably with a bottom-up methodology., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

High level of greenhouse gases emission in fossil fuels has induced a significant transition from conventional energy sources to renewable energy. However, using renewable energy in electricity grids has limitations, such as intermittency and lack of efficient energy storage. This paper focuses on constructing the quanto options contract to help renewable energy producers hedge the risk against low photovoltaic (PV) production and electricity prices. To achieve our objective, we first model the interday PV power production with a combination of a deterministic and stochastic model. We analyse empirical data for daily solar production in three operators in Germany ranging from 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2020. We discovered that all estimated parameters of the deterministic process are highly significant. Meanwhile,we use an autoregressive (AR) process to describe the random behavior in the production. The results demonstrated that AR(2) is suitable enough to explain its stochastic factor. For the error terms analysis, we observed a clear sign of seasonal heteroskedasticity supported by the left skewed density. In addition, we observed a clear seasonal pattern in the squared error terms, where we suggest using seasonal variance and skewed normal distribution to describe its dynamic. As for an application, we embed the PV model in the power price modeling. We found that AR(3) process is sufficient to explain the price behavior and that normal distribution best fits the error terms. Using the suggested PV and power price model, we construct the quanto options contract for renewable energy producers using Monte Carlo simulations. We discovered that the electricity price payoffs are consistent throughout the year, whereas PV and quanto options payoffs vary greatly depending on the season. The quanto options price result shows that the prices vary during four seasons, with the highest variation in July. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strict regulations imposed by the European Union (EU) with the target of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions oblige the biogas plant operators to manage digestate properly. Digestate is a by-product of biogas plants and is used extensively as an organic fertilizer. Digestate drying is a commercially available technology. According to the Fachverband Biogas (German Biogas Assiciation) (2018), 500–700 dryers are in use in Germany's biogas industry. Thermal drying can meet the requirements for hygienization and produce a transportable and storable fertilizer as well. Moreover, the GHG emissions from dried digestate are considerably lower than emissions from moist digestate. In addition to the high energy demand of the drying process, emissions occur during drying, resulting in both a decrease in the digestate's fertilizing value and some negative effects on the environment. Consequently, accurate investigation of the drying kinetics is needed in order to optimize the process with regard to energy consumption, drying time, and the amount of emissions. Drying of digestate faces many difficulties because of material specific properties as well as environmental issues. Digestate tends to stick to the dryer in high moisture content. In spite of additional energy requirements, back-mixing or additives is usually utilized to cope with this problem. These methods also have a positive effect on drying rate and considerably reduce drying time. However, they should be investigated exactly because they can sometimes have negative effect in case of excessive usage. Drying rate and also ammonia emission can be controlled by operational conditions, as well. On account of wide variety of digestate, availability of a generalized reliable model will be of benefit as it allows the engineers and designers to develop and optimize the drying processes. However, determination of primary data should be regarded as the first step. It should be noted that even though obtaining an efficient drying process with regards to both energy consumption and emission is not possible, a relative commitment can be achieved. Thanks to the advances of computational resources, numerical modeling could be considered a key instrument for future progress in designing and optimization of drying process provided that reliable input data are obtainable. This paper aims to review the literature on drying techniques, drying kinetics, and emission behavior of digestate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schools play an important role in achieving climate protection goals, because they lay the foundation of knowledge for a responsible next generation. Therefore, schools as institutions have a special role model function. Enabling schools to become aware of their own carbon footprint (CF) is an important prerequisite for being able to tap the substantial CO2 reduction potential. Aiming at the direct involvement of students in the assessment process, a new assessment tool was developed within the Schools4Future project that gives students the opportunity to determine their own school's CF. With this instrument the CO2 emissions caused by mobility, heating and electricity consumption as well as for food in the school canteen and for consumables (paper) can be recorded. It also takes into account existing renewable energy sources. Through the development of the tool, not only a monitoring instrument was established but also a concrete starting point from which students could take actions to reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. This paper presents the tool and its methods used to calculate the CF and compares it with existing approaches. A comparative case study of four pilot schools in Germany demonstrates the practicability of the tool and reveals fundamental differences between the GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quantification of emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants through the inversion of plumes in satellite images remains a complex problem that current methods can only assess with significant uncertainties. The anticipated launch of the CO2M satellite constellation in 2026 is expected to provide high-resolution images of CO2 column-averaged mole fractions (XCO2), opening up new possibilities. However, the inversion of future CO2 plumes from CO2M will encounter various obstacles. A challenge is the CO2 plume low signal-to-noise ratio, due to the variability of the background and instrumental errors in satellite measurements. Moreover, uncertainties in the transport and dispersion processes further complicate the inversion task. To address these challenges, deep learning techniques, such as neural networks, offer promising solutions for retrieving emissions from plumes in XCO2 images. Deep learning models can be trained to identify emissions from plume dynamics simulated using a transport model. It then becomes possible to extract relevant information from new plumes and predict their emissions. In this paper, we employ convolutional neural networks (CNN) to estimate the emission fluxes from a plume in a pseudo XCO2 image. Our dataset used to train and test such methods includes pseudo images based on simulations of hourly XCO2, NO2 and wind fields near various power plants in Eastern Germany, tracing plumes from anthropogenic and biogenic sources. CNN models are trained to predict emissions from three power plants that exhibit diverse characteristics. The power plants used to assess the deep learning model's performance are not used to train the model. We find that the CNN model outperforms state of the art plume inversion approaches, achieving highly accurate results with an absolute error about half of that of the cross-sectional flux method. Furthermore, we show that our estimations are only slightly affected by the absence of NO2 fields or a detection mechanism as additional information. Finally, interpretability techniques applied to our models confirm that the CNN automatically learns to identify the XCO2 plume and to assess emissions from the plume concentrations. These promising results suggest a high potential of CNNs in estimating local CO2 emissions from satellite images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The liability of multinational entities that have caused greenhouse gas emissions through their extraction activities in the fossil fuel industry has pushed climate change on to the international agenda. Those corporations now face challenges from litigants who have initiated negligence or nuisance actions for breach of duty of care. Suits against individual corporations are now possible due to the development of attribution science that can register the extent of each liability. Litigants from third-world countries have to satisfy locus standi in bringing claims which is difficult to establish in some jurisdictions. For example, in Lliuya v. RWE, (Az. 2 O 285/15, OLG Hamm) 24/1/2017, a South American farmer brought a claim in Germany against RWE-AG, Germany's largest electricity producer, to challenge the effects of greenhouse gas emissions from its plant in Peru. This paper asks: Is it possible for foreign litigants to bring a private tort action against the defendant corporation that has allowed greenhouse gas emissions, in that corporation's domestic courts, and to surmount the obstacle of locus standi? It concludes that it is possible for litigants from developing countries to litigate effectively because the foreign courts' statutory protections, such as the doctrine of separation of powers or political rights doctrine can be overcome if climate litigation is viewed as a human rights matter. The prospects of success of litigants has increased by the impact of event attribution science that can quantify the extent of private actor liability in climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: New regulations and market conditions in Germany affect the profitability of biomethane upgrading as a repowering option for existing biogas plants following on-site CHP utilization. These conditions present trade-off challenges between higher sustainability requirements, maintaining production capacity and new revenue opportunities. Optimization methods, such as linear programming (LP), are essential for determining the ideal substrate mixture and profitable solutions amidst multiple market conditions, plant-specific process constraints, and substrate properties. Methods: We updated a substrate mixture optimization model within an assessment framework for the repowering of existing biogas plants (BGPs), which focuses on the operator's perspective. By integrating multiple German biomethane markets for various BGPs, we assessed changes in the substrate mixture, GHG emissions, contribution margins, and constraint parameters to derive conclusions for operators and future framework design. Results: Integrating market revenues and constraints can increase contribution margins by 12–55%. Additional gains can be achieved by considering multiple markets simultaneously but limited to a few BGPs. The plant-specific LP solution space and used benchmark market are decisive. The former limits the potential of high substrate-specific contribution margins, which has a significantly higher impact than the relation between plant-specific characteristics and process constraints. The advanced fuel market is currently the lead market for biomethane, incentivizing GHG-emission extensive substrates, decreasing gas production and GHG emissions but increasing levelized cost of energy (LCOE) and partially CO2 abatement costs. Conclusions: The key to improve profitability and to supply an increasing biomethane demand while fulfilling new requirements is a large LP solution space. Increasing market options, substrate availability, and digestion system capacity achieve this on the operator's side. Policy makers could reduce normative requirements such as the maize cap or double counting of advanced fuels and favor high but uniform GHG requirements. Operators can prepare robustly for the future substrate mixture by adding digester volume and pre-treatment tech, ensuring long-term and diverse substrate availability, and contracts with flexible components. Although current market conditions can improve specific GHG emissions, they do not necessarily increase manure usage when other options, such as straw, are viable. Other regulatory support systems will be required to do so. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The German Federal Climate Change Act includes binding annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets for the economic sectors energy, industry, buildings, transport, agriculture and waste. For sectors that fail to meet their targets, climate policy measures have to be implemented immediately. However, some sectors may only have achieved their targets thanks to the COVID-19 pandemic, while others may have missed their targets because of COVID-19. For policy making, it is therefore important to disentangle the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic from the effects of policy and other drivers on emissions. In this paper, the effects of the pandemic on GHG emissions in Germany in 2020 are estimated at the national level and at the levels of the economic sectors. Counterfactual emissions are estimated here based on autoregressive econometric models, thereby distinguishing between different factors of emissions based on decomposition analysis. The findings at the national level suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic lowered GHG emissions in 2020 in Germany by about 41 Mt CO2-eq (5.15%) compared to counterfactual emissions. Accordingly, about 58% of the reduction in emissions between 2019 and 2020 in Germany may be attributed to the pandemic. The findings at the sectoral level imply that without the COVID-19 pandemic, all sectors with the exception of the transport sector, would have met their emissions target in 2020 as set in the Federal Climate Change Act. The transport sector would have missed its emission target in 2020 without COVID-19, suggesting that existing policies were not strong enough to bend the curve of emissions trends sufficiently down. In contrast, the buildings sector failed to meet its target in 2020 because of COVID-19, prompting immediate climate policy measures in this sector. The COVID-19 pandemic lowered greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Germany in 2020 by 5.5% compared to counterfactual emissions and accounted for about 58% of total estimated reductions between 2019 and 2020. Without COVID-19, all sectors but the transport sector would have met their emissions targets. Climate policy response should take into account the effects of extraordinary events like COVID-19 suppressing GHG emissions based on counterfactual emissions because failure to implement measures early on may turn out to be costly in the medium term once the transitory emissions reductions no longer occur. Counterfactual emissions should be considered prior to crediting emissions surplus or deficit to subsequent years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On December 12, 2015, 196 countries signed the Paris Agreement, including Germany and also Romania which has the purpose to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1,5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels. To achieve this goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-century. One of the goals is to encourage states with a low level of development, to grow economicaly from green power or green hydrogen, like will show in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To mitigate climate change, individual greenhouse gas emissions need to decline substantially. This paper empirically explores the relationship between individual carbon footprints and carbon literacy as well as socio-economic and attitudinal factors. To operationalize carbon literacy, we distinguish between carbon knowledge and carbon engagement. Our econometric analysis uses widely representative survey data for 1000 individuals in Germany and distinguishes between components of an aggregate carbon footprint and of carbon footprints related with electricity consumption, heating, motorized individual transport, aviation, and dietary choices. We find a negative and sizeable correlation between carbon engagement and the aggregate footprint, as well as the footprints related to electricity consumption and diet. For example, a one-unit increase in our index reflecting carbon engagement corresponds to a decrease in the aggregate carbon footprint of about 4%. Furthermore, for carbon knowledge we find a negative correlation with the carbon footprint from diet. We also find significant correlations between the carbon footprints and gender, age, income, education, environmental preferences, and policy orientation, which generally exhibit the intuitively expected signs, but differ somewhat across activities. Overall, our findings support the notion that fostering carbon engagement represents a more effective strategy for reducing individuals' carbon footprints than enhancing carbon knowledge. • We study the relationship between carbon literacy and carbon footprints. • We break down carbon literacy into carbon knowledge and carbon engagement. • Individual-level carbon footprints calculated from representative data in Germany. • Carbon footprints calculated for electricity use, heating, transport, and diet. • Econometric findings stress role of carbon engagement for carbon footprints. • Carbon footprints are correlated with socio-economic factors and policy orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Construction and use of buildings is one of the highest users of global energy (34%) and one of the highest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions (37%). Using wood instead of carbon-intensive materials such as bricks reduces a building's embodied energy and is a more eco-friendly alternative. Since the quota of newly built wooden houses in Germany is still relatively low, gaining insights into the perspective of consumers is crucial. This study aims to investigate factors from a consumer perspective that influence the selection of wood as the primary building material for residential houses. Therefore, an online survey was conducted in Germany to gather data from individuals (N = 510) who either bought or built a house in the last 5 years. By conducting a logistic regression, we have identified six influencing factors for the selection of wood. Positive views on wood's eco-friendliness and emphasis on renewable materials are key factors in choosing wood. Higher age and living in rural areas also increase the likelihood of selecting wood, while concerns about value stability and durability have negative effects. We conclude that increasing information activities, raising awareness about wood's ecological benefits, and dispelling prejudices can significantly impact its selection as a preferred building material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the potential for Domestic Offset Projects (DPs) in climate protection in Germany. DPs are unilateral GHG emissions reduction projects carried out in a country with a binding greenhouse gas emission reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex I Country). In contrast to the well known project-based mechanisms under the Kyoto protocol — the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Joint Implementation (JI) — Domestic Offset Projects are located in the same country as the investor. Therefore tradable emission reduction certificates for DPs are issued by the investor's domestic authority. This paper presents possible implementation options for DPs based on JI and CDM experience, as well as possible implementation problems. Policy additionaIity seems to be an especially crucial requirement and thus was analysed in more detail. In addition. the emission reduction potential resulting from DPs was estimated for the Federal, state of Baden-Wümemberg, in South-West Germany. Here, it is shown that the scope for DPs is restricted because of the extent of the German climate program. In Baden-Württemberg only some DPs and JI activities fulfil the criterion of policy additionality. For this reason, DPs are probably of more interest in Annex-1 countries with a more limited climate policy mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the impact of ‘new’ environmental policy instruments (NEPIs), such as eco-taxes, tradable permits and environmental agreements, on the politics of regulating industrial greenhouse-gas emissions. Intense academic debate surrounds the extent to which environmental policy is driven by the public interest, public choices between actor and stakeholder interests, or embedded institutional traditions. However, the effects on environmental politics of the recent shift from direct regulation to NEPIs remain seriously under-researched. Surveys and interviews with industry and policy-makers on the implementation of United Kingdom and German climate policy indicate that, although economic pressures do influence the design of policy instruments, public choice is far from dominant; nor are industry reactions to particular NEPIs uniform between countries. This suggests that national institutional traditions are far more influential in informing policy choices and industry reactions to policy innovations than is often acknowledged. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines individual preferences for a reduction of life-cycle CO 2 emissions in vehicle purchase decisions. The empirical analysis is based on data from a stated choice experiment among citizens in Germany that refers to decisions between three types of electric vehicles and one conventional vehicle that are characterized by several attributes. With respect to CO 2 emissions, we specifically examine emissions in vehicle production besides the commonly considered emissions in vehicle use. Our econometric analysis reveals a strong stated preference for the reduction of both components of life-cycle CO 2 emissions. Furthermore, we find that conventional vehicles are significantly preferred over electric vehicles. Surprisingly, environmental attitudes, i.e. environmental awareness and ecological policy identification, have no significant effects on the reduction of CO 2 emissions. Instead, citizens with a strong environmental identity rather tend to avoid the purchase of conventional vehicles. We discuss several practical policy implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from rivers are globally relevant, but quantification of these emissions comes with considerable uncertainty. Quantification of ecosystem-scale emissions is challenged by both spatial and short-term temporal variability. We measured spatio-temporal variability of CO 2 and CH 4 fluxes from a 1 km long reach of the lowland river Elbe in Germany over 3 d to establish which factor is more relevant to be taken into consideration: small-scale spatial variability or short-term temporal variability of CO 2 and CH 4 fluxes. GHG emissions from the river reach studied were dominated by CO 2 , and 90 % of total emissions were from the water surface, while 10 % of emissions were from dry fallen sediment at the side of the river. Aquatic CO 2 fluxes were similar at different habitats, while aquatic CH 4 fluxes were higher at the side of the river. Artificial structures to improve navigability (groynes) created still water areas with elevated CH 4 fluxes and lower CO 2 fluxes. CO 2 fluxes exhibited a clear diurnal pattern, but the exact shape and timing of this pattern differed between habitats. By contrast, CH 4 fluxes did not change diurnally. Our data confirm our hypothesis that spatial variability is especially important for CH 4 , while diurnal variability is more relevant for CO 2 emissions from our study reach of the Elbe in summer. Continuous measurements or at least sampling at different times of the day is most likely necessary for reliable quantification of river GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germany is obliged to report emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases annually under the UNFCCC. This includes emissions of fluorinated refrigerants when decommissioning RAC equipment. To obtain this information, data on the recovery, recycling, and disposal of fluorinated greenhouse gases is necessary, but such data are scarce. The VDKF-LEC database contains information on the recovery of fluorinated refrigerants from decommissioned RAC equipment in Germany and an extracted dataset was used to obtain real-world information for the years 2017 to 2021. Recovery rates for different fluorinated refrigerants from decommissioned commercial and industrial refrigeration as well as stationary air-conditioning equipment were derived. Furthermore, average lifetimes of equipment for the different sectors were calculated. In the analysis, a dependency of charged refrigerant and age of the unit at decommissioning could be observed. Results from the analysis of the VDKF-LEC dataset were compared with reported data under the UNFCCC for Germany and other available data sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the rapid development of the global digital industry and the need for sustainable development and climate change, this paper explores the global ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions changes and intensities from 2000 to 2014, and the driving factors behind ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions changes in 15 countries by using the multi-regional input–output (MRIO) method and structural decomposition analysis (SDA) method. We also use Monte Carlo simulations to forecast the ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions from 2020 to 2050. The results indicate that: (1) After 2009, global ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions first decline and then increase, and the sector that manufactures computer, electronic, and optical products account for 82.83% of the global ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions in 2014; (2) judging from the emission-reduction trends of various countries, CO 2 emissions intensity factors are the main drivers restricting the growth of embodied CO 2 emissions in the ICT sector, while final demand composition factors play a significant role in promoting the increase of ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions; (3) Australia, Germany, and Indonesia contribute to an increase in ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions due to sectoral heterogeneity, while Canada, China, Germany, and South Korea have contributed to an increase in ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions in terms of regional heterogeneity; (4) the drivers have also changed significantly with the impact of the financial crisis; and (5) with the current pattern of development, it is difficult to reach the peak of ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions in most countries before 2050. This paper also provides feasible implementation plans for carbon mitigation in the global ICT industry. • We analyze the global ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions changes and their driving factors. • The structural decomposition analysis (SDA) method is utilized. • Final demand composition factors play a key role in ICT's embodied CO 2 emissions. • ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions of Australia, Germany, and Indonesia increase due to sectoral heterogeneity. • It is difficult to reach the peak of ICT-embodied CO 2 emissions in most countries before 2050. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the introduction of its energy concept in 2010, the German government set ambitious targets for the country's energy and climate policy. According to this concept, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will have to be reduced by 80% by 2050, as compared to 1990 levels, and renewables will have to supply 80% of all electricity needs by the same year. Additionally, Germany has decided to phase out its nuclear energy by 2022. This study investigates the possible components to achieve these targets. The analysis is based on an hourly simulation model EnergyPlan. Three scenarios are developed to investigate the potential development of the German energy supply system until 2050. The results indicate renewable shares of 92% and 81% for scenarios B and A, respectively, by 2050 compared to 69% in the reference scenario. The proposed renewable energy system is even found to involve lower costs than today's energy system (i.e. total annual cost for scenario B is € 260 bn compared to € 293 bn in the reference scenario). The results show that a massive decarbonization of the German energy system until 2050 seems technically and economically feasible, if smart grid costs are disregarded and if this sustainable energy transformation is accompanied by political and genuine public willingness to actually achieve the set goals and take the necessary steps. • In this paper low carbon technologies are used to estimate the CO 2 mitigation potential in Germany. • The EnergyPlan model has been used in this work. • Three scenarios are developed by considering different policies for Germany. • The result shows 90% CO 2 emission reduction and 92% renewable generation possible in B scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Earth's population of seven billion consume varying amounts of planetary resources with varying impacts on the environment. We combine the analytical tools offered by the socio-ecological metabolism and class theory and contribute to a novel social stratification theory to identify the differences in individual resource and energy use. This approach is applied to German society, we use per capita greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) as a proxy for resource and energy use and investigate socio-metabolic characteristics of individuals from an economic, social and cultural perspective. The results show large disparities and inequalities in emission patterns in the German society. For example, the GHG in the lowest and highest emission groups can differ by a magnitude of ten. Income, education, age, gender and regional differences (Eastern vs. Western Germany) result in distinct emission profiles. We question the focus on individual behavioral changes and consumption choices to reduce carbon emissions instead of structural changes through political decisions. We argue that emission differences are directly linked to the effects of inequalities and class differences in capitalist societies. Our research results show that natural resource and energy consumption are important for explaining social differentiation in modern societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A barn's climate is vital for animal welfare and emissions control, including greenhouse gases like methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and environmental gases like ammonia (NH 3 ). The goal of this study was to investigate a developed low-cost online tool for monitoring barn climate and air pollutant emissions (OTICE) in naturally ventilated barns. OTICE employed a wireless sensor network with low-cost sensors for gases and climate variables, allowing scalable use across multiple barns. We evaluated the sensors for CO 2 , NH 3 , and CH4 for accuracy, both in controlled lab conditions and in a dairy barn in Germany, where measurements were carried out continuously for a duration of 12 days. For the averaged concentration levels over the measurement period, the low-cost sensors agreed well with the reference system, with relative deviations lower than 7% for all three gases, with maximum peak deviations up to 32% for CO 2 , 67% for NH 3 , and 65% for CH 4 , with strong Spearman correlations for CO 2 and NH 3 ( ρ C O 2 = 0.8, ρ N H 3 = 0.68) and a rather weak correlation for CH4 with ρ C H 4 = 0.24. Further calibration and stability investigations are required, especially for CH4 sensing. However, the overall good results for NH 3 and especially CO 2 measurements indicate a huge potential of the low-cost system as a valuable tool for monitoring relative NH 3 emission levels and the measurement of air exchange rates in naturally ventilated barns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Multi-modal energy system planning approach to support political decision makers. • Energy sector coupling enables efficient transition pathway to achieve climate goals. • Main drivers: electrification of heat and mobility sectors and use of synthetic fuels. • High impact of the electricity exchange on the operation and costs of the system. In order to reach the goals of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, a stepwise reduction of energy related greenhouse gas emissions as well as an increase in the share of renewable energies is necessary. For a successful realization of these changes in energy supply, an integrated view of multiple energy sectors is necessary. The coupling of different energy sectors is seen as an option to achieve the climate goals in a cost-effective way. In this paper, a methodical approach for multi-modal energy system planning and technology impact evaluation is presented. A key feature of the model is a coupled consideration of the sectors electricity, heat, fuel and mobility. The modeling framework enables system planners to optimally plan future investments in a detailed transition pathway of the energy system of a country, considering politically defined climate goals. Based on these calculations, in-depth analyses of energy markets as well as electrical transmission and distribution grids can be performed using the presented optimization models. Energy demands, conversion and storage technologies in households, the Commerce, Trade and Services (CTS) area and the industry are modeled employing a bottom-up modeling approach. The results for the optimal planning of the German energy system until 2050 show that the combination of an increased share of renewable energies and the direct electrification of heat and mobility sectors together with the use of synthetic fuels are the main drivers to achieve the climate goals in a cost-efficient way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Personal and social norms in favor of contribution to the Paris Agreement influence PEB. • These norms partially mediate the influence of personal involvement (Paris Agreement) on PEB. • These norms partially mediate the influence of environmental values on PEB. • These norms are largely better predictors of PEB than more abstract norms. This paper examines the impact of climate targets which have been adapted to individuals' behavior based on global political events. As the global climate targets of the Paris Agreement are largely supported by society, we investigate the potential of these targets to lead to personal and social norms concerning individual contributions to the Paris Agreement´s climate goals. We assume that these norms mediate the influence of personal involvement in the Paris agreement and of environmental values on greenhouse gas avoiding decisions. Also, we expect that these norms predict greenhouse gas avoiding behavior, rather than norms related to climate change. The research is based on a laboratory study with students conducted in December 2017 in Germany (n = 226). The main results show for the students surveyed in the research that norms in favor of contribution to the Paris Agreement substantially influence objective carbon offsetting, as well as consumption of local food and green electricity; and these norms partially mediate the influence of personal involvement in the Paris Agreement and of environmental values on decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goal, Scope and Background. The goal of the study is a life cycle assessment according to ISO 14040–14043 for wood floor coverings (solid parquet, multilayer parquet, solid floor board and wood blocks). The representative study covers approximately 70% of all wood flooring production in Germany. The comparison of the floor coverings among each other was not the aim. Instead the study provides basic data for all wood floor coverings for a possible comparison with other floor coverings later on. The main focus was a hot spot analysis to help the involved industry partners to improve their environmental performance, and to use the results for marketing purposes. Inventory Analysis. The study covers the whole life cycle from forest management, sawmilling, manufacturing, laying and surface finishing through to refurbishment and end-of-life. The end-of-life scenario is the thermal utilisation of the floor coverings. The energy gained in the end-of-life scenario is accounted for by system expansion (avoided burden approach). Impact Assessment. In the Impact Assessment the following categories were considered: global warming (GWP), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP), ozone depletion (ODP) and photo-oxidant formation (POCP) following the CML baseline 2000 method. Furthermore the use of primary energy is presented. The low emissions of greenhouse gases during the life cycle can lead to a negative contribution to the global warming potential if more emissions are avoided through the substitution process than are emitted during the life cycle of the product. Mainly energy consumption and the use of solvents influence the environmental impacts of the systems under analysis. The most relevant unit processes for the issue of energy consumption are ‘production’ and for photo-oxidant formation ‘laying’, ‘surface finishing’ and ‘refurbishment’. These are therefore the unit processes with the greatest potential for improvement. Normalisation and Sensitivity Analysis. The normalisation results show that the photo-oxidant formation potential is most significant in comparison to the other impact categories. Improvement options and the choice of the functional unit have been further explored in a sensitivity analysis. Discussion and Conclusions. The most important opportunities for improvements are located in the unit processes laying, surface finishing and refurbishment. The POCP result can be reduced significantly depending on the choice of glue and varnish at each of these stages. The results of the sensitivity analysis showed a potential for improvement in this category. No data for the production of an oil and wax finish was available. This option would be interesting to consider at in a further study. The time aspect of storing CO2 for a period of time is not considered in this paper, but will be addressed in a forthcoming paper (Nebel and Cowell 2003). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germany is the leader among countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in reducing its emissions of the Kyoto basket of greenhouse gases (GHGs), having accomplished an emissions reduction of 18.9 percent from 1990 to 2000. This paper aims to explain the reasons for this success and to examine the impacts of the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol on the development of Germany's climate policy. In order to identify the factors that determined this outcome, we divide our examination of the policy process in Germany since 1987 into five periods and will evaluate it with a focus on policy measures implemented and actors as well as the institutions involved. It concludes that domestic factors, including the participation of the Greens in the coalition government, mainly determined Germany's success in developing advanced climate policies and measures to reduce its GHG emissions. The paper also highlights the importance of the linkage of climate policy with other policies, which provided incentives to those who would otherwise have opposed or remained neutral on the development of climate policy. As such, the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol did not have a direct impact on climate policy development in Germany, but it did have an indirect impact in that it triggered the development of common and coordinated policies and measures at the European Union (EU) level in order to achieve its quantified GHG reduction target of 8 percent committed to under the Kyoto Protocol, as seen in the introduction of an EU-wide emissions trading scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector have increased continuously in recent years, electric vehicles have become a potential solution to achieve environmental goals in this sector. The uptake of electric vehicle is strongly dependent on sufficient charging infrastructure. While much research has been conducted on electric vehicle charging simulations and projections, there is a research gap on real-world charging by actual users. Therefore, we conducted a survey on charging behavior and preferences in Germany in 2020 with around 4,000 electric vehicle users. The survey included a stated choice experiment and a willingness-to-pay-analysis. We found that participants' charging behavior is dominated by home charging and that public infrastructure is perceived to be insufficient. Next to charging prices, measures of comfort through the occupancy rate of charging infrastructure and additional waiting time are driving factors when making the decision to charge. Participants specified an acceptable time for additional walking distances when parking at charging facilities between 5 and 10 minutes. High abstention rates in answering some questions indicate the need for sufficient education strategies considering existing and new charging technologies. Drivers with high annual mileage and battery electric vehicle users are willing to pay more for additional charging power. Users are open to smart charging, as long as flexibility for spontaneous trips is maintained. This research offers timely insights into real-world charging behavior and preferences, while providing recommendations for the future roll out of charging infrastructure in Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic activities increase the contributions of inland waters to global greenhouse gas (GHG; CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O) budgets, yet the mechanisms driving these increases are still not well constrained. In this study, we quantified year-long GHG concentrations, fluxes, and water physico-chemical variables from 28 sites contrasted by land use across five headwater catchments in Germany. Based on linear mixed-effects models, we showed that land use was more significant than seasonality in controlling the intra-annual variability of the GHGs. Streams in agriculture-dominated catchments or with wastewater inflows had up to 10 times higher daily CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 O emissions and were also more temporally variable (CV > 55 %) than forested streams. Our findings also suggested that nutrient, labile carbon, and dissolved GHG inputs from the agricultural and settlement areas may have supported these hotspots and hot-moments of fluvial GHG emissions. Overall, the annual emission from anthropogenic-influenced streams in CO 2 equivalents was up to 20 times higher (∼ 71 kg CO 2 m -2 yr -1) than from natural streams (∼ 3 kg CO 2 m -2 yr -1), with CO 2 accounting for up to 81 % of these annual emissions, while N 2 O and CH 4 accounted for up to 18 % and 7 %, respectively. The positive influence of anthropogenic activities on fluvial GHG emissions also resulted in a breakdown of the expected declining trends of fluvial GHG emissions with stream size. Therefore, future studies should focus on anthropogenically perturbed streams, as their GHG emissions are much more variable in space and time and can potentially introduce the largest uncertainties to fluvial GHG estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper quantifies changes in the trend of greenhouse gas footprints associated with household consumption covering a period of 20 years. We combine greenhouse gas emissions related to the supply chain (embedded) and consumption (direct) with households' consumption expenditures from the sample survey of income and expenditure (EVS), and present the first comprehensive study on trends in greenhouse gas footprints of German households. We find a decay in changes in GHG footprints as a response to increases in household expenditure over time. In addition, our estimated own-price elasticities for electricity and heating indicate an increasing demand response to higher energy prices. However, this does not translate to a clear decreasing trend in the total GHG footprint because of the role of changes in the demand of other commodities and changes in expenditure levels across years. Further, comparing results of the more advanced EASI demand system with those of the more widely used QUAIDS approach, we find sizable differences. • Mean GHG footprints of German households have fallen by 21% from 1998 to 2018. • Heating, transport and food contribute most to the mean GHG footprint in all years. • The expenditure elasticity of GHG footprints is quite stable at 0.92 (+/− 0.01). • Own-price elasticities for electricity and heating show increasing demand responses. • QUAIDS is too restrictive compared to the more flexible EASI demand system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germany's climate goals require over 75% of its housing stock to be retrofitted for energy efficiency. An important question for Germany and other countries is, what minimum energy efficiency standard should be mandated for housing retrofits so as to reduce CO2 emissions economically efficiently? It has long been known that the marginal costs of energy efficiency increase as standards are pushed higher, and therefore the marginal costs of CO2 abatement increase, but at the same time energy consumption reduces, thereby reducing CO2 emissions. This paper investigates where the social optimum lies between these two effects. In addition to a large database of house sale advertisements containing price and energy efficiency data, it uses two semi-official data sources of modelled and actual energy efficiency upgrades in Germany. It finds that retrofitting to a modestly high standard of about 70 kWh/m2/y entails marginal costs of CO2 abatement comparable to current CO2 prices. However, each step to a higher standard increases these by up to an order of magnitude, with absurdly high marginal costs of CO2 abatement for the highest standards. German policymakers are currently pushing for higher minimum standards, but money could better be spent retrofitting more houses to less stringent standards. • Policymakers seek to drive energy efficiency in buildings to ever higher levels. • But costs of CO2 abatement rise extremely sharply as standards tighten. • Use cost data on retrofits of German buildings to various efficiency standards. • Retrofits to current standards are at the limit of CO2 abatement efficiency. • Driving standards higher increases CO2 abatement cost by an order of magnitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Transport and mobility contribute a significant share of greenhouse gas emissions, and fossil fuel consumption must be reduced for mobility to meet sustainable development goals. Strengthening public transport is a key element of the required mobility transition, including technological innovation. To address the related institutionalisation processes, we analyse the interplay between technological development and the intensifying mobility transition debate. We focus on the challenges for the roles of public transport professionals, who are essential for the implementation of sustainable mobility measures at the local level. Case selection and methods: We present two cases: First, we address urban ropeways as an incremental option to extend public transport networks. In a series of three expert workshops (23 participants in total), local public transport professionals discussed the potential of urban ropeways, and challenges concerning the related institutional framework. Second, we chose an exploratory approach to understand how public transport professionals engage in the debate on the potentially disruptive role of automated driving in the future of public transport. This included an analysis of strategy documents and experimentation, as well as observations at sectoral events and stakeholder forums. In both cases, we focus on the specific context in Germany, which ensures a coherent institutional framework and a consistent analysis. Results: We found a general openness among public transport professionals to consider the potential of mature urban ropeway technology. However, critical gaps remain in planning instruments and the densely regulated public transport planning regime. Concerning automated driving, a strong technological focus can be observed in the related transport policy debate. At the local level, despite numerous technical tests, there is hardly any discussion of more far-reaching requirements regarding integration of the technology into the mobility system in a way that ensures sustainability-oriented goals are met. Conclusions: Beyond both incremental and potentially disruptive technological drivers, the proactive and targeted design of corresponding institutionalisation processes proves to be a key challenge for achieving a sustainable mobility transition. Institutionalisation and the related roles of public transport professionals must be considered in relation to the mobility transition's substantive goals and the associated political discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electricity generation from renewable energy reduces greenhouse gas emissions and, in the long term, the cost of electricity in power grids. However, there is currently no strong positive correlation between greenhouse gas intensity and electricity spot prices in Germany, despite increasing renewable energy penetration. Therefore, energy flexibility programs that rely on demand response may not be fully effective in reducing carbon emissions unless the energy market aligns consistently with carbon emission factors. To address this issue, we propose a model for joint signals consisting of power grid climate gas intensity and price signals that can achieve both environmental and economic benefits for building energy flexibility applications. Next, to assess the maximum possible flexibility hours from the grid side, we explore penalty signal threshold limits with daily and biweekly aggregation. Using a case study, we analyze energy flexibility with joint signals to explore their effect on greenhouse gas emissions and building operation cost. Our results suggest that joint signals can be more effective than a single type of signal in promoting energy flexibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food systems contribute considerably to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and influence land use. In Germany, many strategies have been proposed by policy-makers to reduce negative impacts and make the food system more sustainable. It is unclear how close the suggested policies, when bundled, will bring the food and land use system towards the targeted goals; and what stakeholders from non-policy-making organizations consider realistic changes in the German food system. We thus surveyed different stakeholder groups on their opinions about realistic changes in the food and land use system in Germany up to 2050, developed four stakeholder pathways, and used an accounting tool to determine the effect of each pathway on indicators such as land use, GHG emissions, and biodiversity conservation potential. The assessment showed that GHG emissions from agricultural activities and land use are reduced from 66 to − 2–22 TgCO2e by 2050, while the area where natural processes predominate increases from 19 to 27–32%, and the resilience of the food system is not negatively influenced. The change is caused mainly by a diet-change-induced reduction of livestock production and agricultural area transformation into areas with higher carbon sequestration rates. If followed, the common stakeholder pathway (based on all stakeholder responses) would thus lead towards a sustainable food and land use system, but only if the underlying assumption of a drastic diet change towards more plant-based products comes true. Stakeholders from the academic and public sectors were more likely to assume that such a change was realistic than stakeholders from the private sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More than 30% of Germany's final energy consumption currently results from thermal energy for heating and cooling in the building sector. One possibility to achieve significant greenhouse gas emission savings in space heating and cooling is the application of aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) systems. Hence, this study maps the spatial technical potential of shallow low-temperature ATES systems in Germany. Important criteria for efficient ATES operation considered in this assessment encompass suitable hydrogeological conditions, such as aquifer productivity and groundwater flow velocity, and balanced space heating and cooling demands. The latter is approximated by the ratio of heating and cooling degree days, which is incorporated as a time-dependent criterion to also evaluate the impact of climate change on the ATES potential. The hydrogeological and climatic criteria are combined within a spatial analysis revealing that, regarding the upcoming decades, about 54% of the investigated German area are very well or well suitable for ATES applications, largely concentrating on three regions: the North German Basin, the Upper Rhine Graben and the South German Molasse Basin. Considering time-dependent climatic conditions, the very well or well suitable areas will increase by 13% for the time period 2071–2100. This is mostly caused by a large relative area increase of the very well suitable regions due to an increasing cooling demand in the future. The sensitivity of the very well and well suitable regions to the criteria weightings is relatively low. Accounting for existing water protection zones shows a reduction of the country-wide share of very well or well suitable areas by around 11%. Nevertheless, the newly created potential map reveals a huge potential for shallow low-temperature ATES systems in Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) processes are promising separation technologies to recover valuable compounds from industrial off‐gases. In this work, the separation of CO from basic oxygen furnace gas (BOFG) with a three‐bed VPSA process for high‐purity applications using a dynamic process model is analyzed. The analysis evaluates technical operating ranges for providing 99.9 % pure CO and assesses system‐wide environmental impacts using life cycle assessment. The results show that CO from BOFG as feedstock for chemicals reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by about 10 % for Germany's current grid mix regardless whether the VPSA process operates at maximum productivity (0.18 Nm3h−1kg−1ads) or maximum recovery (95.7 %). Further reduction in GHG emissions by up to 68 % can be achieved using renewable energy albeit increasing other environmental impacts such as mineral and metal depletion. Overall, VPSA offers a viable, short‐term solution for providing low‐carbon CO from BOFG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the EU, the transport sector is the only sector with increasing GHG emissions compared to 1990. While harmful emissions have decreased due to successful regulation, transport performance, fossil fuel consumption and thus CO2 emissions have continued to increase, despite powertrain efficiency improvements. Meaningful regulation, which can be market-based (MBI) and non-market-based (NMBI) by nature, is needed to meet climate targets. To understand the mechanisms, effects and limitations of MBI and NMBI, this study investigates and evaluates selected regulations in the German road transportation sector until 2020. Therefore, this study identifies, describes, and categorizes environmental policy instrument types. Based on this step, selected instruments in the road transportation sector are identified by their type and implemented policies are described and assessed. Furthermore, an assessment methodology is developed to evaluate and score target achievement, cost-efficiency and practical feasibility by linking the outcomes of instruments to its goals. Based on the findings of this assessment, conclusions and recommendations are developed and discussed. Finally, results and general properties of policies and their type of instruments are extrapolated, and general statements about market and non-market-based instruments in a broader context for future regulation and market designs are projected. The study discovers that fuel producers and distributors, vehicle manufacturers and sellers are directly regulated by non-marked-based instruments, despite the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). On the customer side, primarily market-based implemented except for low-emission zones, which are direct regulations. The study finds that holistic representation and realistic internalization of external effects in a market is complex and will never be complete. Still, sufficient representation can be enough to drive transformation in the transport sector. The CO2 price itself is not sufficiently representing the consequential costs of climate change induced by road transport, but it helps to make low-carbon alternatives economically viable. Overall, the study finds that most implemented regulations in the German road transport sector were successful in relation to their goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the light of the sustainable development goals, a set of operationalizable criteria quantifying societal benefits versus costs is needed to prepare for the introduction of an incentive-driven, high adoption shared on-demand mobility service in a rural transportation area. Aiming to reduce still-existing uncertainty about the impacts of a market entry and to balance substantial monetary incentives for suppliers of pooled rides with the progress in net GHG emission reduction and accessibility gain, the framework is applicable at the transactional and/or aggregate level. Results: The presented set of indicators is decision-oriented, and applicable both at the transactional and macro level. Scenarios and user choice situations for two regulatory options of demand responsive transport—one in line with the current legislation in Germany, avoiding overlap with existing fixed-route scheduled public transport and one not strictly complementary which assumes direct competition—are formalized. By the help of a case study, the outcome of the different organizational models at three levels of incentivization can be systematically compared. The implementation effort of the assessment method is examined in view of the forthcoming sustainability compliance reporting in this sector. Conclusions: A system-optimal constrained public private DRT deployment offers the opportunity of a reduction of uneconomic routes and parallel services upon selection of eligible rides. As shown, a crowding out of existing, publicly financed offerings in an unsaturated mobility market should not be the primary concern. At the contrary, resorting to supply-side incentives, a proportion of the high volume of solo car trips could be consolidated while levels of service improve in total. However, this may be associated with considerable expense, as demonstrated by the quantity structure of the provided case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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