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Purpose: This paper aims to present a new survey data set of 9,065 private sector respondents and other stakeholder groups, in Myanmar. The primary aim of this paper is to offer new insight avenues on local business–conflict–development interactions, and offer the full survey data set itself as an open-source research tool for scholars and practitioners. Design/methodology/approach: The survey was conducted over smartphone in 2018. It asked questions that aimed to better understand the relationships between business, ethnic conflict, investment, corporate social responsibility and the United Nations sustainable development goals in Myanmar and in Rakhine State in particular. Findings: The data set captures a series of significant differences in corporate leadership perspectives on the role of business in society, across sectors (e.g. banking, agriculture, retail, manufacturing, extractives) and variations across firm country of ownership (e.g. national firms, Global North firms, Indian firms, Chinese firms). Research limitations/implications: The authors conclude with a brief discussion of possible research findings from the survey, offering suggestions for possible forward analysis. The authors offer here the raw survey data as an attachment for full global open-source use and application. Practical implications: This data set offers a unique window into stakeholder perceptions and understandings of working through conflict, and the role of business in development in a fragile conflict-affected state (Myanmar). The authors also conduct two example analyses of the data set using ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests to illustrate possible uses and findings of the data set. Social implications: The authors briefly discuss social implications as well, particularly regarding the role of business in peacebuilding and development. Originality/value: This data set offers a unique window into stakeholder perceptions and understandings of working through conflict, and the role of business in development in a fragile conflict-affected state (Myanmar). The authors also conduct two example analyses of the data set using ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests to illustrate possible uses and findings of the data set. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coupling innovations in everyday social and technological practices to close energy poverty delivers local sustainable development. Although case studies on the linkages between energy access and sustainable development had been far-reaching, we know very little about their interactions in everyday practices, such as cooking. A focus on access to renewable energy for everyday activities as cooking has substantial implications for the energy justice principles of equity, accessibility, and affordability. Energy justice underlines the necessity for all people to have access to energy services fairly. At the same time, one should ensure that these energy systems do not inflict damage upon the present and future generations. This paper used a Grounded Theory approach to show how an energy transition in everyday practices such as cooking can deliver just, local, sustainable development while emerging as a sociotechnical innovation in rural Thailand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In November 2015, State Parties to the World Heritage Convention approved a resolution adopting a policy integrating sustainable development into World Heritage conservation (WH Policy). A central component of the WH Policy was an expectation for participatory models of management involving local communities in site management. This paper uses a case study of Sri Ksetra in Pyu Ancient Cities, Myanmar's first entry onto the World Heritage list, to identify how management practices toward local communities can frustrate the implementation of WH Policy goals. The paper argues that the implementation of WH Policy involves not only the contents of policy statements but also the actions of site management practices, such that efforts to promote sustainable development via community participation require consideration of both the articulation of appropriate management systems in formal policy documents as well as the practice of appropriate conduct by those systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because generating electricity significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, meeting the 2015 Paris Agreement and 2021 Glasgow Climate Pact requires rapidly transitioning to zero or low-emissions electricity grids. Though the installation of renewables-based generators—predominantly wind and solar-based systems—is accelerating worldwide, electrical energy storage systems, such as pumped storage hydropower, are needed to balance their weather-dependent output. The authors of this paper are the first to examine the status and potential for pumped storage hydropower development in 24 Pacific Rim economies (the 21 member economies of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation plus Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Myanmar). We show that there is 195 times the pumped storage hydropower potential in the 24 target economies as would be required to support 100% renewables-based electricity grids. Further to the electrical energy storage potential, we show that pumped storage hydropower is a low-cost, low-greenhouse-gas-emitting electrical energy storage technology that can be sited and designed to have minimal negative (or in some cases positive) social impacts (e.g., requirements for re-settlement as well as impacts on farming and livelihood practices) and environmental impacts (e.g., impacts on water quality and biodiversity). Because of the high potential for pumped storage hydropower-based electrical energy storage, only sites with low negative (or positive) social and environmental impacts such as brownfield sites and closed-loop PSH developments (where water is moved back and forth between two reservoirs, thus minimally disturbing natural hydrology) need be developed to support the transition to zero or low-carbon electricity grids. In this way, the advantages of well-designed and -sited pumped storage hydropower can effectively address ongoing conflict around the social and environmental impacts of conventional hydropower developments. Noting the International Hydropower Association advocacy for pumped storage hydropower, we make recommendations for how pumped storage hydropower can sustainably reduce electricity-sector greenhouse gas emissions, including through market reforms to encourage investment and the application of standards to avoid and mitigate environmental and social impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Myanmar, 70% of the rural population engages in rice farming for their livelihoods. Since 2013, the government and development projects have introduced a variety of sustainable rice cultivation practices such as improved fertilizer-, water-, pest- and post-harvest management. A mixed method approach was used to gain a better understanding of adoption behaviour and livelihood changes. One hundred and twenty nine farmers participated in the study which revealed the adoption of sustainable practices; reasons include higher yields, reduced costs and labour savings. Reasons for non-adoption included unsuitable or expensive practices. We find that profitability analysis and partial budgeting calculations revealed an estimated increase in income (>0) of 113 USD/ha (SD = 90.64 USD/ha), due to an increase in yield and reduced costs. Furthermore, in-depth interviews revealed that farmers (n = 32) used this extra income for religious and social activities, for food, health care and education. They were able to expand their farm business and produce rice more sustainably. The paper thus contributes to the adoption literature by linking development project outputs to outcomes and impact. Concerted efforts by the government and development projects can enable farmers to produce cereals more sustainably and experience positive changes to their livelihoods and strengthen rural development at local and regional level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive assessment of climate change vulnerability is imperative for formulating effective adaptation strategies and advancing sustainable development goals. As one of the most climate-vulnerable regions globally, the Pan-Third Pole area lacks transnational vulnerability assessments, which poses a significant obstacle to efficient climate adaptation. This study conducted transnational comparisons based on primary micro-survey data collected uniformly across Nepal, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar, which are all located in the Pan-Third Pole region. Evaluating and comparing the vulnerabilities employed an extended framework of climate change indicators. The findings reveal substantial variations in vulnerability among the countries, with Cambodia exhibiting the highest vulnerability, followed by Thailand, Myanmar, and Nepal in descending order, primarily due to differences in exposure. Household exposure to climate change also varied significantly. Sensitivity scores decreased in the order of Nepal > Cambodia > Thailand > Myanmar, with demographic factors, tap water accessibility, and land being the major contributors and sources of differentiation among the countries. Regarding adaptability, Thailand demonstrated the highest adaptability, with human and financial capital as the key differentiators. The outcomes underscore the need for tailored policy measures addressing the diverse vulnerabilities, including enhancing household disaster prevention and capital protection. Furthermore, targeted international investments are crucial for improving adaptability among smallholders in this unique region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of the elderly population is a major global demographic and social issue. Unfortunately, there is a shortage of pension plans and social security programmes for this population in developing countries, which has severe consequences for their quality of life and well-being. In this article, we aim to better understand the pension systems in developing country contexts such as Ghana, Pakistan, and Myanmar by reviewing official government materials (for example, pension reports) and the published literature to suggest relevant policy recommendations. We observed several policy implementation gaps and inequities in pension schemes for older people, specifically for informal and private sector workers. Considering the size of formal versus informal economies and the level of development index of each country, we suggest a wide variety of options for pension policies, financing, designing cash benefits, and pension payments to cover all older citizens. This article addresses the unmet needs of the elderly and their wider economic sustainability to ensure social justice and resource utilisation. Governments in developing countries should embrace and establish unique, inclusive, and friendly policies encompassing the informal sector to warrant older adults' functional and social well-being with dignity and honour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the present status of Myanmar's economy in the context of the ASEAN developmental divide, and considers its future prospects. Doing such an assessment is an unenviable task given the poor quality of data. According to official data, Myanmar has been consistently posting double-digit GDP growth rates since 1999-2000. Myanmar's growth is one of the highest in the world for the period and double that of most other countries in the region. However, a number of international organizations have reservations about these double-digit GDP growth rates. More importantly, they are difficult to reconcile with other indicators of development and the lack of any significant structural reforms. Also, the development divide between Myanmar and other ASEAN countries continue to be as wide as ever. The paper concludes by pointing out some of the urgently needed reforms for Myanmar to achieve sustained development: developing the financial sector and establishing "development fundamentals". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an overview of the activities of a large drug eradication movement called Pat Jasan in northern Myanmar. It will outline the different everyday justice systems available in the Myanmar borderlands to communities who are seeking to push forward a 'solutions focused' agenda to manage drug-related social problems. They have at their disposal a range of statutory, customary, and quasi-statutory-customary legal processes and instruments. However, a close analysis of everyday justice highlights the complex challenges posed in this contested borderland concerning how to address these issues through multiple, overlapping authorities. The paper shows how notions of legitimacy for drug related legal processes are constructed and the key role of brokers in this environment, who are vital in managing the dilemmas of governance and legal administration. It also touches upon emerging intergenerational and gendered tensions that serve to orientate ideological and political perspectives towards different outcomes as these systems are navigated. The complexity and sensitivity of the local everyday justice social field contrasts sharply with the debates conducted about Pat Jasan at a national and drugs policy reform level, in which these local actors are marginalized as disruptive and reactionary forces that work entirely outside the rule of law. The paper invites consideration of how national and international drug policy actors engage with such social movements, as well as how concerns about illicit drug use and supply within local communities provides a helpful tool of analysis for understanding other critical issues for sustainable development and peacebuilding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health equity is central to achieving sustainable development goals and COVID-19 has emphasized its importance. Ensuring health equity is prominent in policy discussions and decision-making is a critical challenge in all countries. Understanding the policy space for actors to promote health equity in the policy process may help to strengthen prioritization of equity in policy and programme discussions and decisions. Authors developed a conceptual framework for policy space based on a narrative literature review. This comprised five key elements and their associated factors, i.e. context, policy circumstances, policy characteristics, actor engagement and policy spaces. Authors then applied it in Myanmar during a period of political transition, using a qualitative case study design. Findings showed that political transition provided an important 'policy window' to develop more equitable health policy in Myanmar. Changing policy circumstances offered opportunities for advancing pro-equity policy. However, lack of visibility of health equity and long-standing inequalities were important challenges to policy space. Within a changing context, actors at individual and organizational levels used a range of policy spaces to advance pro-equity health policy. Learning from using the framework in Myanmar was incorporated into a revised framework. Application of this revised framework could provide valuable insights into the opportunities to promote a pro-health equity approach across policy and programme discussions and decision-making for actors trying to promote equity in other transition and non-transition contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessment of progress toward UN Sustainable Development Goal 4 requires measurement of the proportion of children aged 24 to 59 months developmentally on track in health, learning, and psychosocial well-being (Indicator 4.2.1). UNICEF's methodological work culminated with the development of the Early Childhood Development Index 2030 (ECDI2030) to measure on track status. To compare direct assessment and caregiver report of early child development, a measure aligned to ECDI2030 – the Early Childhood Development Assessment Scale-Direct Assessment (ECDAS-DA) – was developed and administered to 510 preschoolers aged 36- to 59-months from Bangladesh, China, India, and Myanmar. Their caregivers completed the Early Childhood Development Assessment Scale-Caregiver Survey (ECDAS-CS) containing items based on the ECDI2030. Research Findings: The two measures correlated with each other and were associated with child age, maternal education, and family wealth. ECDAS-DA showed more variability by child age and provided more fine-grained analyses of emerging developmental competencies than ECDAS-CS. Practice or Policy: Given the dearth of pan-culturally appropriate tools, ECDAS-DA can be deployed in longitudinal studies and impact evaluations in low- and middle-income countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Development Policy Review is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Tropical forest landscapes are undergoing vast transformations. Myanmar was long an exception to this trend – until recent policy reforms put economic development at the forefront. Under ambiguous land rights, commercial agriculture has spread rapidly, causing an unprecedented loss of biodiversity-rich forest. In south-eastern Myanmar, where land tenure is highly contested due to several decades of conflict, scientific evidence on these complex social-ecological processes is lacking. In the absence of past satellite data, we applied a participatory mapping approach and co-produced annual land use information with local land users between 1990 and 2017 for two case study landscapes. Results show that both landscapes have undergone a land use regime shift from small-scale farmers' shifting cultivation to plantations of rubber, betel nut, cashew, and oil palm. These changes are likely to have long-term impacts on land users' livelihoods and the environment. We call for a reconsideration of land governance arrangements and concerted land use planning that respects the rights of local land users and strengthens their role as environmental stewards. Applied with careful facilitation, participatory mapping could be an important tool to engage communities in the highly challenging process of transforming land governance to achieve more sustainable outcomes in this post-conflict context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of European Journal of Development Research is the property of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Myanmar undergoes rapid urban expansion and experiences its negative impacts, often due to the loss of urban green spaces. National and local authorities lack sufficient knowledge, capacity and plans on how to preserve urban green spaces and benefit from their ecosystem services, with such gaps being particularly pronounced in the smaller secondary cities. This study focuses in such as secondary city, Pyin Oo Lwin, and analyzes land use and land cover (LULC) change, tree diversity and carbon stored in aboveground and belowground biomass, and soil. We focus on the main green spaces of the city, which contain different configurations of urban forest, grassland and agricultural land. Remote sensing analysis tracked LULC change between 1988 and 2018, and showed the extensive increase of built-up area, and the decline of urban forests and urban farms. Even though a substantial amount of green spaces has been converted to built-up land, the remaining urban green spaces are still serving as an important habitat for many different tree species, with a total of 82 species from 35 families observed in the different green spaces. Furthermore, these green spaces contain significant carbon stocks, which are, however, highly variable: botanical garden (383.67 t/ha), coffee farms (355.64 t/ha), monasteries (277.14 t/ha), golf course (208.45 t/ha), and seasonal farms (123.22 t/ha). Nevertheless, the extensive LULC change has reduced carbon stocks from 2.41 Mt (1988) to 1.65 Mt (2018). The findings of this study provide a better understanding of LULC change in secondary cities of Myanmar, and build an evidence base on how urban green spaces preservation and green infrastructure development can contribute to green economic transitions, and sustainable, resilient, and low-carbon cities in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing precarity amongst rural households in Myanmar is characterised by increasingly debt-fuelled agriculture, decreasing sufficiency and sustainability of rural livelihoods and an absence of social safety nets. This constrains the capacity for viable livelihoods, as risk-averse coping strategies undermine long-term economic sustainability. In this context, informal support networks may be expected to decline or collapse. However, recent evidence demonstrates the widespread emergence of community-based social organisations in rural communities, formed along traditional principles of reciprocity. Analysis of large-scale rural household surveys demonstrates that such organisations are found in nearly 40% of communities in rural Myanmar. These organisations collect and redistribute funds to help with healthcare, education, funerals and other social needs. The presence of such organisations is linked to higher levels of household resilience, achieved through reducing the inequalities linked to gender, disability and poverty, and through providing enabling environments for effective income diversification. Communities with higher levels of migration are more likely to have community-based social organisations, possibly a result of economic and social remittances. In the absence of effective formalised social protection, these social organisations provide most of the social assistance in rural communities, representing new networks of reciprocity in the face of increasing precarity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate the dynamic relationship between renewable and non-renewable energies, CO2 intensity and economic growth for the period of 1990–2016 using a case study of Myanmar. Autoregressive distributed lag, dynamic OLS, fully modified OLS and Gregory–Hansen co-integration are applied to analyse a time series dataset over the specified time period. The analysis shows that total energy use plays an insignificant role in promoting economic growth. However, decomposition analysis reveals that only renewable energy use significantly promotes, whereas non-renewable energy negatively influences, economic growth. Furthermore, non-renewable energy use is counterproductive in the presence of technological inefficiency, and the size of the overall labour force fosters economic growth. Overall results are robust under different estimation scenarios, including structural break, endogeneity and mixed order of integration. This study presents a new avenue of knowledge by investigating the role of decomposed energy use and technological efficiency in promoting economic growth in the context of Myanmar. Results emphasise the production and use of renewable energy to achieve sustainable economic development in Myanmar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After Myanmar ended military rule in 2011, significant foreign investment arrived to facilitate a profitable transition to an integrated regional economy, and under the promise that foreign actors can help facilitate peaceful long-term development. However, these firms have also tacitly supported an ethnic cleansing committed by the government that most have partnered with or funded. This article builds theory on economic opening, development and conflict, using research from Myanmar to forward three arguments about business actions in fragile, at-risk countries. First, international-led regulatory reform has had little impact on endemic corruption at the micro- or meso-levels, as local elites and international businesses remain the primary beneficiaries. Second, 'development' is a contentious topic, defined locally not as broad societal growth but the unjustified picking of winners and losers in society by foreign entities. Third, business ventures are exacerbating ethnic tensions through a liberal peace-building mentality that is unresponsive to either local conflicts or local communities. The article closes by offering three ways that these findings open future research avenues on business engagement as peace-builders and development agents in developing yet fragile states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the driving factors of resource consumption patterns in order to identify historical trends in population, affluence, and technology that affect environmental impact reduction through low resource consumption. While such assessments have been conducted in many industrialized countries, similar studies have yet to be conducted in developing countries. This study compares the material flow and accumulation trends of Myanmar, the Philippines, and Bangladesh for three periods spanning 1985-2010. It uses an analytical framework to identify the impacts of human activities on the environment via the following formula: Impact = Population × Affluence × Technology. The Philippines is a newly industrialized country, Bangladesh a resource importer, and Myanmar a primary resource provider and, thus, the fundamental differences in their development and economic structures provide a strong foundation for comparing the driving factors of their resource use. This study finds that efficiency improvement results in reduced resource consumption. This indicates that stronger technology improvement policies are required to mitigate environmental impacts. The capture of real trends from driving factors can ensure that development policies result in a sustainable future for the Asia-Pacific region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Myanmar's water-related sectors are subject to intensive changes, as the country's abundant land and water resources provide substantial scope for development. Recent steps towards economic reform in Myanmar have led to a surge of foreign investment directed towards intensified natural resource extraction. Both the agricultural and the energy sector are increasingly affected by foreign investments that will impact the status of water, energy and food security in the country. With these on-going developments, Myanmar's future is largely dependent on how its natural resources are managed and how the benefits from the resource extraction are shared. With various institutional changes and new actors welcomed to the sectors, existing livelihoods and ecosystems dependent on the land and water resources are to face increasing competition for the shared resources, while lacking secured access to them. There are increasing concerns that this sectoral development is occurring at the expense of environmental and social sustainability. As one way to tackle these challenges, the water-energy-food nexus approach could help in finding synergies and co-benefits across sectors by addressing the imbalances along the nexus and externalities derived from the on-going intensification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While local residents are recognized as critical to the conservation of protected areas (PAs), most studies are done on a case-by-case basis, with no conceptual underpinnings to facilitate comparisons. The lack of a common framework limits not only our understanding, but also the development of future research areas and approaches to balancing conservation and sustainable development around protected areas. If we are to understand and address fundamental PA-people issues, we need a descriptive framework that enables the understanding of the relationship that people have with PAs and that facilitates comparisons among PAs. I propose a framework for PA-people relationships based on research conducted in Nepal and Myanmar. The framework consists of: (1) people's physical relationship with the PA; (2) their attitude toward the PA, which consists of their liking or disliking the area and the perceptions they have of the PA; and (3) the linkage of the PA-people relationship to the broader social, political, and economic context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the world has pledged to "leaving no one behind". Responding to goal No. 7 on the agenda, efforts to provide modern energy to all the world population must be pushed forward. This is important because electrification in the rural area can indirectly support opportunities for social and economic development resulting in an acceleration of the eradication of poverty. The research goal of this study is to contribute insights about the scale of energy demand in unelectrified villages in the Southeast Asian countries and to discuss some factors that might influence the energy demand growth. This is done by making projections based on surveys and interviews, including a time-use survey, in three off-grid villages located in Myanmar, Indonesia, and Laos. Our analysis presented the living condition, highlight the types of energy sources, how, and in what rhythms people use energy on a daily basis in those villages. The demands in each case study villages were then projected based on several constructed scenarios. It was found that the factors of household size, proximity to the city, climate, and topography may influence the present and future growth of energy demands in the villages. The estimated energy demand may be useful for project managers to design a pilot off-grid energy system project in a similar environment and pointed out important factors to consider when formulating off-grid energy policies in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring forests is important for measuring overall success of the 2030 Agenda because forests play an essential role in meeting many Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), especially SDG 15. Our study evaluates the contribution of three satellite data sources (Landsat-8, Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-1) for mapping diverse forest types in Myanmar. This assessment is especially important because Myanmar is currently revising its classification system for forests and it is critical that these new forest types can be accurately mapped and monitored over time using satellite imagery. Our results show that using a combination of Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 yields the highest accuracy (89.6% ± 0.16 percentage point(pp)), followed by Sentinel-2 alone (87.97% ± 0.11 pp) and Landsat-8 (82.68% ± 0.13 pp). The higher spatial resolution of Sentinel-2 Blue, Green, Red, Narrow Near Infrared and Short Wave Infrared bands enhances accuracy by 4.83% compared to Landsat-8. The addition of the Sentinel-2 Near Infrared and three Vegetation Red Edge bands further improve accuracy by 0.46% compared to using only Sentinel-2 Blue, Green, Red, Narrow Near Infrared and Short Wave Infrared bands. Adding the radar information from Sentinel-1 further increases the accuracy by 1.63%. We were able to map the two major forest types, Upper Moist and Upper Dry Mixed Deciduous Forest, which comprise 90% of our study area. Accuracies for these forest types ranged from 77 to 96% depending on the sensors used, demonstrating the feasibility of using satellite data to map forest categories from a newly revised classification system. Our results advance the ongoing development of the National Forest Monitoring System (NFMS) by the Myanmar Forest Department and United Nations-Food and Agriculture Organization (UN-FAO) and facilitates future monitoring of progress towards the SDGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy access remains a challenge for many countries, as recognized by sustainable development goal 7 of the United Nations Development Programme. Although the Myanmar government has set a target of 100% electrification by 2030, less than half of the households are currently connected to the national grid. To expedite electrification, decentralized approaches should be considered. Mini-grids are an effective alternative that can fill the gap between a solar home system and the national grid; however, many of the existing mini-grids in Myanmar are powered by diesel generators. Diesel fuel is significantly more expensive in rural areas than in urban areas due to high transportation costs. Although mini-grids powered by solar photovoltaics and batteries are cost-competitive with diesel generators, the deployment of renewable energy-based mini-grids is slow. In this study, we analyzed the barriers to mini-grid deployment and prioritized the barriers. We conducted a questionnaire survey with stakeholders using the analytic hierarchy process to identify the prioritization of each barrier factor. The K-means clustering method was used to determine tendencies and showed that there was no single, dominant solution. Our results confirm the difficulty of mini-grid deployment and suggest multi-pronged approaches that go beyond economic considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deforestation and forest degradation are occurring continuously and posing serious threats to forests and people worldwide. In Myanmar, poor regulation and unsustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is affecting millions of hectares of natural forests; overexploitation of forest resources is one of the main drivers of forest degradation. Although evidence shows that the extraction of NTFPs results in forest degradation, there have been few studies on what drives rural people to depend on NTFPs and how to address these drivers in terms of policies and measures. Policies and measures are nationally enacted policies and actions that countries undertake to address the causes of deforestation and forest degradation. This study identifies which factors determine the dependence on NTFPs in forest-dependent communities. From these factors, we derived policy implications for the main causes of overexploitation of NTFPs to provide suggestions for developing policies and measures in the design of national Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) strategies. Focusing on the Taungoo District as a case of dependence on NTFPs by local communities, we conducted a qualitative and quantitative data collection procedure based on interviewing households in the local communities. NTFPs contributed the most to total household income and the main types of NTFPs exploited were charcoal making and bamboo selling. Households with lower education level, less agricultural land, less income from off-farm activities, lived under the poverty line or used only charcoal were more dependent on NTFPs in the study areas. Poverty and fuelwood usage were factors affecting NTFPs dependence for landowners while rice insufficiency, off-farm income and fuelwood usage most affected the NTFPs dependence for landless people. The results suggested that national strategies for REDD+ should take into account local features such as income opportunities and land tenure in order to make local people cooperate with the government to avoid deforestation and forest degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]