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Upon hormonal stimulation, uterine endometrial stromal cells undergo a dramatic morpho-functional metamorphosis that allows them to secrete large amounts of matrix proteins, cytokines, and growth factors. This step, known as decidualization, is crucial for embryo implantation. We previously demonstrated how the secretory pathway is remodelled during this process. Here we show that hormonal stimulation rapidly induces the expression of many mitochondrial genes, encoded in both the mitochondrial and the nuclear genomes. Altogether, the mitochondrial network quadruples its size and establishes more contacts with the ER. This new organization results in the increased respiratory capacity of decidualized cells. These findings reveal how achieving an efficient secretory phenotype requires a radical metabolic rewiring., (© 2024 Dalla Torre et al.)

Many secretory enzymes acquire essential zinc ions (Zn 2+ ) in the Golgi complex. ERp44, a chaperone operating in the early secretory pathway, also binds Zn 2+ to regulate its client binding and release for the control of protein traffic and homeostasis. Notably, three membrane transporter complexes, ZnT4, ZnT5/ZnT6 and ZnT7, import Zn 2+ into the Golgi lumen in exchange with protons. To identify their specific roles, we here perform quantitative Zn 2+ imaging using super-resolution microscopy and Zn 2+ -probes targeted in specific Golgi subregions. Systematic ZnT-knockdowns reveal that ZnT4, ZnT5/ZnT6 and ZnT7 regulate labile Zn 2+ concentration at the distal, medial, and proximal Golgi, respectively, consistent with their localization. Time-course imaging of cells undergoing synchronized secretory protein traffic and functional assays demonstrates that ZnT-mediated Zn 2+ fluxes tune the localization, trafficking, and client-retrieval activity of ERp44. Altogether, this study provides deep mechanistic insights into how ZnTs control Zn 2+ homeostasis and ERp44-mediated proteostasis along the early secretory pathway., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Upon progesterone stimulation, Endometrial Stromal Cells (EnSCs) undergo a differentiation program into secretory cells (decidualization) to release in abundance factors crucial for embryo implantation. We previously demonstrated that decidualization requires massive reshaping of the secretory pathway and, in particular, of the Golgi complex. To decipher the underlying mechanisms, we performed a time-course transcriptomic analysis of in vitro decidualizing EnSC. Pathway analysis shows that Gene Ontology terms associated with vesicular trafficking and early secretory pathway compartments are the most represented among those enriched for upregulated genes. Among these, we identified a cluster of co-regulated genes that share CREB3L1 and CREB3L2 binding elements in their promoter regions. Indeed, both CREB3L1 and CREB3L2 transcription factors are up-regulated during decidualization. Simultaneous downregulation of CREB3L1 and CREB3L2 impairs Golgi enlargement, and causes dramatic changes in decidualizing EnSC, including Golgi fragmentation, collagen accumulation in dilated Endoplasmic Reticulum cisternae, and overall decreased protein secretion. Thus, both CREB3L1 and CREB3L2 are required for Golgi reshaping and efficient protein secretion, and, as such, for successful decidualization., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Pittari, Dalla Torre, Borini, Hummel, Sawarkar, Semino, van Anken, Panina-Bordignon, Sitia and Anelli.)

Antibodies of the immunoglobulin M (IgM) class represent the frontline of humoral immune responses. They are secreted as planar polymers in which flanking µ 2 L 2 "monomeric" subunits are linked by two disulfide bonds, one formed by the penultimate cysteine (C575) in the tailpiece of secretory µ chains (µ s tp) and the second by C414 in the Cµ3. The latter bond is not present in membrane IgM. Here, we show that C575 forms a non-native, intra-subunit disulfide bond as a key step in the biogenesis of secretory IgM. The abundance of this unexpected intermediate correlates with the onset and extent of polymerization. The rearrangement of the C-terminal tails into a native quaternary structure is guaranteed by the engagement of protein disulfide isomerase ERp44, which attacks the non-native C575 bonds. The resulting conformational changes promote polymerization and formation of C414 disulfide linkages. This unusual assembly pathway allows secretory polymers to form without the risk of disturbing the role of membrane IgM as part of the B cell antigen receptor., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Certain cell types must expand their exocytic pathway to guarantee efficiency and fidelity of protein secretion. A spectacular case is offered by decidualizing human endometrial stromal cells (EnSCs). In the midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle, progesterone stimulation induces proliferating EnSCs to differentiate into professional secretors releasing proteins essential for efficient blastocyst implantation. Here, we describe the architectural rearrangements of the secretory pathway of a human EnSC line (TERT-immortalized human endometrial stromal cells (T-HESC)). As in primary cells, decidualization entails proliferation arrest and the coordinated expansion of the entire secretory pathway without detectable activation of unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways. Decidualization proceeds also in the absence of ascorbic acid, an essential cofactor for collagen biogenesis, despite also the secretion of some proteins whose folding does not depend on vitamin C is impaired. However, even in these conditions, no overt UPR induction can be detected. Morphometric analyses reveal that the exocytic pathway does not increase relatively to the volume of the cell. Thus, differently from other cell types, abundant production is guaranteed by a coordinated increase of the cell size following arrest of proliferation., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The composition of the secretome depends on the combined action of cargo receptors that facilitate protein transport and sequential checkpoints that restrict it to native conformers. Acting after endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident chaperones, ERp44 retrieves its clients from downstream compartments. To guarantee efficient quality control, ERp44 should exit the ER as rapidly as its clients, or more. Here, we show that appending ERp44 to different cargo proteins increases their secretion rates. ERp44 binds the cargo receptor ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC)-53 in the ER to negotiate preferential loading into COPII vesicles. Silencing ERGIC-53, or competing for its COPII binding with 4-phenylbutyrate, causes secretion of Prdx4, an enzyme that relies on ERp44 for intracellular localization. In more acidic, zinc-rich downstream compartments, ERGIC-53 releases its clients and ERp44, which can bind and retrieve non-native conformers via KDEL receptors. By coupling the transport of cargoes and inspector proteins, cells ensure efficiency and fidelity of secretion., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Background: Therapies available for late stage prostate cancer (PCa) patients are limited and mostly palliative. The necessary development of unexplored therapeutic options relies on a deeper knowledge of molecular mechanisms leading to cancer progression. Redox signals are known to modulate the intensity and duration of oncogenic circuits; cues originating from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and downstream exocytic organelles are relevant in secretory tumors, including PCa. Ero 1α is a master regulator of redox homeostasis and oxidative folding., Methods: We assessed Ero 1α mRNA expression by bioinformatic analysis of three public datasets and protein expression levels in PCa cell lines representing different degrees of tumor progression and different human prostate specimens. Transient Ero 1α knockdown was achieved by RNA interference (siRNA). Consequences of Ero 1α downregulation were monitored by PCa proliferation, migration and invasion properties., Results: Ero 1α mRNA and protein levels are upregulated in PCa cell lines compared to non-tumorigenic cells (P=0.0273). Ero 1α expression increases with the grade of malignancy, reaching the highest level in the androgen resistant PC3. In patients' samples from 3 datasets, Ero 1α mRNA expression correlates with pathological Gleason scores. Ero 1α knockdown inhibits proliferation (P=0.0081), migration (P=0.0085) and invasion (P=0.0007) of PC3 cells and alters the levels of integrin β1 (P=0.0024)., Conclusions: Results indicate that Ero 1α levels correlate with PCa aggressiveness; Ero 1α silencing inhibits key steps over the PCa metastatic process. Therefore, Ero 1α has the potential to be exploited as a novel biomarker and a therapeutic target in PCa., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (available at http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/tau-20-1025). Dr. RS reports grants from Telethon (GGP15059), grants from Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC, IG 14559) and grants from Fondazione Cariplo (2015–0591), during the conduct of the study. The other authors have no conflict of interests to declare., (2021 Translational Andrology and Urology. All rights reserved.)

Interactions between protein ligands and receptors are the main language of intercellular communication; hence, how cells select proteins to be secreted or presented on the plasma membrane is a central concern in cell biology. A series of checkpoints are located along the secretory pathway, which ensure the fidelity of such protein signals (quality control). Proteins that pass the checkpoints operated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by the binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP; also known as HSPA5 and GRP78) and the calnexin-calreticulin systems, must still overcome additional scrutiny in the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) and the Golgi. One of the main players of this process in all metazoans is the ER-resident protein 44 (ERp44); by cycling between the ER and the Golgi, ERp44 controls the localization of key enzymes designed to act in the ER but that are devoid of suitable localization motifs. ERp44 also patrols the secretion of correctly assembled disulfide-linked oligomeric proteins. Here, we discuss the mechanisms driving ERp44 substrate recognition, with important consequences on the definition of 'thiol-mediated quality control'. We also describe how pH and zinc gradients regulate the functional cycle of ERp44, coupling quality control and membrane trafficking along the early secretory compartment., Competing Interests: Competing interestsThe authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2020. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Zinc ions (Zn 2+ ) are imported into the early secretory pathway by Golgi-resident transporters, but their handling and functions are not fully understood. Here, we show that Zn 2+ binds with high affinity to the pH-sensitive chaperone ERp44, modulating its localization and ability to retrieve clients like Ero1α and ERAP1 to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Silencing the Zn 2+ transporters that uptake Zn 2+ into the Golgi led to ERp44 dysfunction and increased secretion of Ero1α and ERAP1. High-resolution crystal structures of Zn 2+ -bound ERp44 reveal that Zn 2+ binds to a conserved histidine-cluster. The consequent large displacements of the regulatory C-terminal tail expose the substrate-binding surface and RDEL motif, ensuring client capture and retrieval. ERp44 also forms Zn 2+ -bridged homodimers, which dissociate upon client binding. Histidine mutations in the Zn 2+ -binding sites compromise ERp44 activity and localization. Our findings reveal a role of Zn 2+ as a key regulator of protein quality control at the ER-Golgi interface.

Professional secretory cells can produce large amounts of high-quality complex molecules, including IgM antibodies. Owing to their multivalency, polymeric IgM antibodies provide an efficient first-line of defense against pathogens. To decipher the mechanisms of IgM assembly, we investigated its biosynthesis in living cells and faithfully reconstituted the underlying processes in vitro. We find that a conserved peptide extension at the C-terminal end of the IgM heavy (Ig-μ) chains, termed the tailpiece, is necessary and sufficient to establish the correct geometry. Alanine scanning revealed that hydrophobic amino acids in the first half of the tailpiece contain essential information for generating the correct topology. Assembly is triggered by the formation of a disulfide bond linking two tailpieces. This induces conformational changes in the tailpiece and the adjacent domain, which drive further polymerization. Thus, the biogenesis of large and topologically challenging IgM complexes is dictated by a local conformational switch in a peptide extension., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) are enzymes that are present in almost all organisms with the primary function of limiting peroxide accumulation. In mammals, two of the eight members (GPX7 and GPX8) reside in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). A peculiar feature of GPX8 is the concomitant presence of a conserved N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD) and a C-terminal KDEL-like motif for ER localization., Aims: Investigating whether and how GPX8 impacts Ca 2+ homeostasis and signaling., Results: We show that GPX8 is enriched in mitochondria-associated membranes and regulates Ca 2+ storage and fluxes. Its levels correlate with [Ca 2+ ] ER , and cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca 2+ fluxes. GPX7, which lacks a TMD, does not share these properties. Deleting or replacing the GPX8 TMD with an unrelated N-terminal membrane integration sequence abolishes all effects on Ca 2+ fluxes, whereas appending the GPX8 TMD to GPX7 transfers the Ca 2+ -regulating properties. Innovation and Conclusion: The notion that the TMD of GPX8, in addition to its enzymatic activity, is essential for regulating Ca 2+ dynamics reveals a novel level of integration between redox-related proteins and Ca 2+ signaling/homeostasis. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 27, 583-595.

The polymeric structure of secretory IgM allows efficient antigen binding and complement fixation. The available structural models place the N-glycans bound to asparagines 402 and 563 of Ig-μ chains within a densely packed core of native IgM. These glycans are found in the high mannose state also in secreted IgM, suggesting that polymerization hinders them to Golgi processing enzymes. Their absence alters polymerization. Here we investigate their role following the fate of aggregation-prone mutant μ chains lacking the Cμ1 domain (μ∆). Our data reveal that μ∆ lacking 563 glycans (μ∆5) form larger intracellular aggregates than μ∆ and are not secreted. Like μ∆, they sequester ERGIC-53, a lectin previously shown to promote polymerization. In contrast, μ∆ lacking 402 glycans (μ∆4) remain detergent soluble and accumulate in the ER, as does a double mutant devoid of both (μ∆4-5). These results suggest that the two C-terminal Ig-μ glycans shape the polymerization-dependent aggregation by engaging lectins and acting as spacers in the alignment of individual IgM subunits in native polymers., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interests.

In multicellular organisms, some cells are given the task of secreting huge quantities of proteins. To comply with their duty, they generally equip themselves with a highly developed endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and downstream organelles in the secretory pathway. These professional secretors face paramount proteostatic challenges in that they need to couple efficiency and fidelity in their secretory processes. On one hand, stringent quality control (QC) mechanisms operate from the ER onward to check the integrity of the secretome. On the other, the pressure to secrete can be overwhelming, as for instance on antibody-producing cells during infection. Maintaining homeostasis is particularly hard when the products to be released contain disulfide bonds, because oxidative folding entails production of reactive oxygen species. How are redox homeostasis ("redoxtasis") and proteostasis maintained despite the massive fluxes of cargo proteins traversing the pathway? Here we describe recent findings on how ERp44, a multifunctional chaperone of the secretory pathway, can modulate these processes integrating protein QC, redoxtasis, and calcium signaling., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Precise coordination of protein biogenesis, traffic and homeostasis within the early secretory compartment (ESC) is key for cell physiology. As a consequence, disturbances in these processes underlie many genetic and chronic diseases. Dynamic imaging methods are needed to follow the fate of cargo proteins and their interactions with resident enzymes and folding assistants. Here we applied the Halotag labelling system to study the behavior of proteins with different fates and roles in ESC: a chaperone, an ERAD substrate and an aggregation-prone molecule. Exploiting the Halo property of binding covalently ligands labelled with different fluorochromes, we developed and performed non-radioactive pulse and chase assays to follow sequential waves of proteins in ESC, discriminating between young and old molecules at the single cell level. In this way, we could monitor secretion and degradation of ER proteins in living cells. We can also follow the biogenesis, growth, accumulation and movements of protein aggregates in the ESC. Our data show that protein deposits within ESC grow by sequential apposition of molecules up to a given size, after which novel seeds are detected. The possibility of using ligands with distinct optical and physical properties offers a novel possibility to dynamically follow the fate of proteins in the ESC.

ERp44 is a pH-regulated chaperone of the secretory pathway. In the acidic milieu of the Golgi, its C-terminal tail changes conformation, simultaneously exposing the substrate-binding site for cargo capture and the RDEL motif for ER retrieval through interactions with cognate receptors. Protonation of cysteine 29 in the active site allows tail movements in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that conserved histidine residues in the C-terminal tail also regulate ERp44 in vivo. Mutants lacking these histidine residues retain substrates more efficiently. Surprisingly, they are also O-glycosylated and partially secreted. Co-expression of client proteins prevents secretion of the histidine mutants, forcing tail opening and RDEL accessibility. Client-induced RDEL exposure allows retrieval of proteins from distinct stations along the secretory pathway, as indicated by the changes in O-glycosylation patterns upon overexpression of different partners. The ensuing gradients might help to optimize folding and assembly of different cargoes. Endogenous ERp44 is O-glycosylated and secreted by human primary endometrial cells, suggesting possible pathophysiological roles of these processes., (© 2014. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Neurotransmitters play important roles in neurogenesis; in particular, acetylcholine and serotonin may regulate neurite elongation. Acetylcholine may also activate transcription factors such as early growth response protein 1 (EGR-1), which plays a role in neurite extension. N18TG2 neuroblastoma cells (which do not produce neurotransmitters and constitutively express muscarinic acetylcholine receptors) were transfected with constructs containing the cDNA for choline acetyltransferase, 5-hydroxytryptamine 1A (5-HT1A) and 5-HT2B serotonin receptors to study acetylcholine and serotonin interplay in neurite outgrowth. 5-HT1A receptor stimulation causes a decrease in EGR-1 levels and inhibition of neurite outgrowth; 5-HT2B stimulation, however, has no effect. Muscarinic cholinergic stimulation, on the other end, increases EGR-1 levels and fiber outgrowth. Inhibition of EGR-1 binding reduces fiber outgrowth activity. When both cholinergic and 5-HT1A receptors are stimulated, fiber outgrowth is restored; therefore, acetylcholine counterbalances the inhibitory effect of serotonin on neurite outgrowth. These results suggest that EGR-1 plays a role in the interplay of acetylcholine and serotonin in the regulation of neurite extension during development., (© 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Fidelity of the humoral immune response requires that quiescent B lymphocytes display membrane bound immunoglobulin M (IgM) on B lymphocytes surface as part of the B cell receptor, whose function is to recognize an antigen. At the same time B lymphocytes should not secrete IgM until recognition of the antigen has occurred. The heavy chains of the secretory IgM have a C-terminal tail with a cysteine instead of a membrane anchor, which serves to covalently link the IgM subunits by disulfide bonds to form "pentamers" or "hexamers." By virtue of the same cysteine, unassembled secretory IgM subunits are recognized and retained (via mixed disulfide bonds) by members of the protein disulfide isomerase family, in particular ERp44. This so-called "thiol-mediated retention" bars assembly intermediates from prematurely leaving the cell and thereby exerts quality control on the humoral immune response. In this essay we discuss recent findings on how ERp44 governs such assembly control in a pH-dependent manner, shuttling between the cisGolgi and endoplasmic reticulum, and finally on how pERp1/MZB1, possibly as a co-chaperone of GRP94, may help to overrule the thiol-mediated retention in the activated B cell to give way to antibody secretion.

Aims: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in many functions, including protein folding, redox homeostasis, and Ca(2+) storage and signaling. To perform these multiple tasks, the ER is composed of distinct, specialized subregions, amongst which mitochondrial-associated ER membranes (MAM) emerge as key signaling hubs. How these multiple functions are integrated with one another in living cells remains unclear., Results: Here we show that Ero1α, a key controller of oxidative folding and ER redox homeostasis, is enriched in MAM and regulates Ca(2+) fluxes. Downregulation of Ero1α by RNA interference inhibits mitochondrial Ca(2+) fluxes and modifies the activity of mitochondrial Ca(2+) uniporters. The overexpression of redox active Ero1α increases passive Ca(2+) efflux from the ER, lowering [Ca(2+)](ER) and mitochondrial Ca(2+) fluxes in response to IP3 agonists., Innovation: The unexpected observation that Ca(2+) fluxes are affected by either increasing or decreasing the levels of Ero1α reveals a pivotal role for this oxidase in the early secretory compartment and implies a strict control of its amounts., Conclusions: Taken together, our results indicate that the levels, subcellular localization, and activity of Ero1α coordinately regulate Ca(2+) and redox homeostasis and signaling in the early secretory compartment.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the port of entry for proteins into the secretory pathway, is a multifunctional organelle emerging as a central integrator of numerous signalling pathways. The mechanisms that control proteostasis are integral part of this signalling network, providing cues for morphological and functional cell remodelling, proliferation, inflammation and cell death. The complexity of ER responses is exploited during physiological and pathological tissue development, cell differentiation and lifespan control. This essay outlines some of the mechanisms that link proteostasis within the early secretory compartment to signalling in development and disease.

In many protein storage diseases, detergent-insoluble proteins accumulate in the early secretory compartment (ESC). Protein condensation reflects imbalances between entry into (synthesis/translocation) and exit from (secretion/degradation) ESC, and can be also a consequence of altered quality control (QC) mechanisms. Here we exploit the inducible formation of Russell bodies (RB), dilated ESC cisternae containing mutant Ig-micro chains, as a model to mechanistically dissect protein condensation. Depending on the presence or absence of Ig-L chains, mutant Ig-micro chains lacking their first constant domain (Ch1) accumulate in rough or smooth RB (rRB and sRB), dilations of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC), respectively, reflecting the proximal and distal QC stations in the stepwise biogenesis of polymeric IgM. Either weakening ERp44-dependent distal QC or facilitating ER-associated degradation (ERAD) inhibits RB formation. Overexpression of PDI or ERp44 inhibits muDeltaCh1 secretion. However, PDI inhibits while ERp44 promotes muDeltaCh1 condensation. Both Ero1alpha silencing and overexpression prevent RB formation, demonstrating a strict redox dependency of the phenomenon. Altogether, our findings identify key controllers of protein condensation along the ESC as potential targets to handle certain storage disorders.

Neurotransmitters are considered part of the signaling system active in nervous system development and we have previously reported that acetylcholine (ACh) is capable of enhancing neuronal differentiation in cultures of sensory neurons and N18TG2 neuroblastoma cells. To study the mechanism of ACh action, in this study, we demonstrate the ability of choline acetyltransferase-transfected N18TG2 clones (e.g. 2/4 clone) to release ACh. Analysis of muscarinic receptors showed the presence of M1-M4 subtypes and the activation of both IP(3) and cAMP signal transduction pathways. Muscarinic receptor activation increases early growth response factor-1 (EGR-1) levels and treatments with agonists, antagonists, and signal transduction enzyme inhibitors suggest a role for M3 subtype in EGR-1 induction. The role of EGR-1 in the enhancement of differentiation was investigated transfecting in N18TG2 cells a construct for EGR-1. EGR-1 clones show increased neurite extension and a decrease in Repressor Element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST) expression: both these features have also been observed for the 2/4 clone. Transfection of this latter with EGR zinc-finger domain, a dominant negative inhibitor of EGR-1 action, increases REST expression, and decreases fiber outgrowth. The data reported suggest that progression of the clone 2/4 in the developmental program is dependent on ACh release and the ensuing activation of muscarinic receptors, which in turn modulate the level of EGR-1 and REST transcription factors.

In vertebrates, eye development comprises inductive and morphogenetic events that are finely regulated by the coordinated action of many intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Recent evidence suggested that neurotransmitters could be enumerated by the extracellular signals contributing to the retinal and eye development. We showed that, among these neuromodulators, serotonin acting via the 5-HT2B receptor, is involved in the control of retinoblasts proliferation and survival in Xenopus embryogenesis. To further clarify the role of 5-HT2B receptor in ocular development, we performed a gene gain of function analysis in vitro and in vivo in Xenopus embryos. We confirmed that 5-HT2B overexpression is per se sufficient to promote cell proliferation in a neuroblastoma cell line. The in vivo experiments revealed that an over serotonin signaling, via 5-HT2B receptors, resulted in the formation of eyes with an irregular form, position and orientation. Interestingly, we showed 5-HT2B gene expression in periocular mesenchyme that represents a key signaling center required for a correct eye morphogenesis. Moreover, the 5-HT2B receptor overexpressing retina, displays a disorganization of the typical laminar structure with the presence of retinal cells scattered in ectopic positions or forming rosette like structures. On the whole our data support the idea that serotonin signalling has to be finely regulated during eye development to allow a correct retinogenesis and may participate in the correct orchestration and synergism of all the factors and events that regulate eye morphogenesis in ocular and periocular tissues.

ERp44 mediates thiol-dependent retention in the early secretory pathway, forming mixed disulphides with substrate proteins through its conserved CRFS motif. Here, we present its crystal structure at a resolution of 2.6 A. Three thioredoxin domains-a, b and b'-are arranged in a clover-like structure. A flexible carboxy-terminal tail turns back to the b' and a domains, shielding a hydrophobic pocket in domain b' and a hydrophobic patch around the CRFS motif in domain a. Mutational and functional studies indicate that the C-terminal tail gates the CRFS area and the adjacent hydrophobic pocket, dynamically regulating protein quality control.

The contribution of microglia to the modulation of neurogenesis under pathological conditions is unclear. Both pro- and anti-neurogenic effects have been reported, likely reflecting the complexity of microglial activation process. We previously demonstrated that prolonged (72 hr) in vitro exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) endows microglia with a potentially neuroprotective phenotype, here referred as to "chronic". In the present study we further characterized the chronic phenotype and investigated whether it might differently regulate the properties of embryonic and adult neural precursor cells (NPC) with respect to the "acute" phenotype acquired following a single (24 hr) LPS stimulation. We show that the LPS-dependent induction of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1 alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha was strongly reduced after chronic stimulation of microglia, as compared with acute stimulation. Conversely, the synthesis of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and the immunomodulatory prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) was still elevated or further increased, after chronic LPS exposure, as revealed by real time PCR and ELISA techniques. Acutely activated microglia, or their conditioned medium, reduced NPC survival, prevented neuronal differentiation and strongly increased glial differentiation, likely through the release of proinflammatory cytokines, whereas chronically activated microglia were permissive to neuronal differentiation and cell survival, and still supported glial differentiation. Our data suggest that, in a chronically altered environment, persistently activated microglia can display protective functions that favor rather than hinder brain repair processes., ((Copyright) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)