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Planning is presented as a process for developing desired organizational change focused on creating an alternative future more conducive and different from the one anticipated. A general planning template as well as five recognized and two emerging processes for planning are presented with a discussion of their uses; they are Rational Comprehensive, Bounded Rational, Mixed Scanning, Incremental, Goal-Free, Scenario, and Experience-Based planning. Issues arising from the nature of the unknown futures flowing from change are also discussed. The competition that can arise from the manipulation of such futures is noted.

The purpose of this article is to provide an introduction to strategic planning in education, including basic principles, templates, and factors that led to its rise to become a recognized approach in educational planning, and in the issues that have led to increasing reliance on other approaches to educational planning.

In January 2000, the Nevada Board of Wildlife Commissioners (Wildlife Commissioners) directed Nevada’s state game management agency, the Nevada Department of Wildlife (NDOW), to secure wildlife damage management (WDM) assistance from the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services Program (WS) for the purpose of protecting a struggling population of pronghorn antelope located in northern Washoe County, Nevada. NDOW had documented, over a several-year period, that this northern Nevada antelope population had consistently demonstrated unacceptably low fawn recruitment levels. While NDOW was unsure of the cause for this consistent poor production record, the Wildlife Commissioners suspected “excessive” fawn predation to be one of the primary causes for the unacceptable recruitment levels. WS was contracted by NDOW to initiate fawn protection efforts for this population with an emphasis on coyote predation management. In collaboration with WS, NDOW mapped out a designated protection area where WDM activities would be conducted, established that WDM activities would only be conducted during the vulnerable fawning period, and set a target recruitment level for the herd which, when reached, would conclude the WDM activities. Prior to the initiation of WDM actions, WS personnel conducted several predator surveys to establish the coyote incidence level within the designated protection area. These data were to serve as a baseline indicator to help gauge the effectiveness of ongoing coyote removal efforts. While WS removed any coyote encountered within the specified protection area during the critical fawning season, removal efforts were primarily directed at older, territorial coyotes. The doe-to-fawn ratio was determined by NDOW at the end of each season, and when the ratio reached NDOW’s predetermined level of 32 fawns per 100 does, WDM activities were terminated. Additional benefits stemming from the antelope project included reduced predator pressure on other game species inhabiting the same area (such as mule deer), and collection of coyote blood samples for the monitoring of wildlife diseases such as plague.

USDA APHIS Wildlife Services has established a National Wildlife Disease Surveillance and Emergency Response System (SERS). The goal of SERS is to develop and implement a nationally coordinated disease monitoring system aimed at safeguarding wildlife populations, agriculture, and human health and safety from disease threats. The SERS is designed to provide an infrastructure capable of assisting state, federal, and tribal agencies with both routine disease monitoring and in addressing wildlife disease threats. Supplementing existing programs with a nationally coordinated wildlife surveillance system facilitates information exchange among the programs, ensures diseases of national bio-security concern (e.g., plague, tularemia, avian influenza, classical swine fever) are adequately sampled, and additionally, provides field and laboratory infrastructure which is available to assist other agencies with sampling collection and disease diagnosis during emergency outbreaks. The SERS currently consists of national program staff and 23 wildlife disease biologists distributed throughout the country. During 2005, these biologists provided disease surveillance assistance to 17 states for chronic wasting disease, 19 states for West Nile virus, 18 states for rabies, and numerous other states for surveillance of 18 other diseases. In 2005, the SERS program coordinated national level surveillance systems for plague and tularemia (18 states) and for diseases in feral swine (14 states). Currently, SERS is coordinating a National Early Detection System for Asian influenza H5N1 in migratory birds, in collaboration with other federal and state partners.

Although evaluation serves many purposes in education, there is virtually unanimous agreement that evaluation is a critical component of all school improvement processes. Hamilton et al. (2003) asserted that "assessment and evaluation should be built into reform programs from the outset" (p. 26). Kimball, Lander, and Thorn (2010) extended this, calling for evaluation before, during, and after school improvement projects. Consequently, the purpose of this article is to explore when, how, and why evaluation should be utilized in formal school improvement processes.

On November 2, 1996, the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium (ISLLC), a program of the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), adopted a set of Standards for School Leaders (CCSSO, 1996). By 2005, 41 states had adopted or adapted these Standards (Sanders & Simpson, 2005). However, after almost a decade of experience with the Standards, states asked the Council to update them. So, in 2005, the Council began working with the National Policy Board for Educational Administration to accomplish this (CCSSO, 2007). First, they designed a State Policy Framework to Develop Highly Qualified Administrators (Sanders & Simpson, 2005). Central to developing a new set of standards was their plan to update and clarify each main ISLLC standard, enhancing the focus on teaching, learning, and success for all students, and addressing key issues affecting schools, e.g., increased accountability, cultural competencies, and community engagement. The revisions also sought to adapt the Standards to tiered or differentiated licensure structures, to changes in school leaders' roles, responsibilities, and authority, and to better address the issue of administrator dispositions (CCSSO, 2007). On December 12, 2007, the National Policy Board for Educational Administration (NPBEA) adopted the new standards, entitled the "Educational Leadership Policy Standards: ISLLC 2008, as adopted by the National Policy Board for Educational Administration" (CCSSO, 2008). As Murphy (2003) had concluded about the 1996 Standards, "they have exerted considerable pull on the profession of school administration, considerably more than almost anyone could have anticipated" (p. 39). There is every reason to believe the new Standards will be equally influential. With 41 states adopting or adapting the Standards as the basis of their educational leadership preparation programs, and many of those states also using them as a foundation for the evaluation of practicing school administrators, the Standards clearly will shape practice. The purpose of this article is to examine them closely and to reflect upon what specific implications they may have for educational planning.

Purpose: To examine tobacco farmers' attitudes toward tobacco control, public health, and tobacco manufacturers in order to determine the extent to which rapidly changing economic conditions have influenced North Carolina tobacco farmer attitudes in ways that may provide tobacco control advocates with new opportunities to promote tobacco control policies in tobacco-dependent US communities. Methods: We used data from a longitudinal sample of North Carolina tobacco farmers across 5 waves of data collection (1997-2005) (baseline N = 749 farmers). Generalized linear mixed models were used to examine changes in attitudes toward tobacco control and tobacco manufacturers, controlling for economic dependence on tobacco, and demographic factors. Results: Over the study period there was reduction in tobacco farmers' perceptions of threat from tobacco control initiatives. Conclusions: These changes in attitude may signal an opportunity for successful tobacco control activity in traditionally tobacco-dependent states and rural communities.

Many states, accrediting agencies, and the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium have policies and standards mandating strategic planning for public schools. Planning in schools has become synonymous with strategic planning. However, alternative approaches to change exist that offer more effective solutions to school improvement. School processes are significantly different from those in the business environment from which strategic planning evolved. The coalescence of policy around a single planning form may not be in public education's best interests. This article explores the limitations of the strategic model and the potential contributions of other planning models and lessons from contemporary "best practice." (Contains 10 footnotes.)

In 1983, a landmark event occurred in public education in the US: the National Commission on Excellence in Education published its now famous report, A Nation at Risk. The report was generally regarded as the catalyst for decades of public and political pressure for large-scale school improvement or reform. Here, Beach and Lindahl identify a knowledge base available to inform the professional judgments and actions of school leaders as they attempt to meet this challenge. (Contains 3 figures.)

Explains that the right to education is not mentioned in the Constitution of the United States as a fundamental right, discussing whether the United States needs a right to education. Examines how such a right could be established through either modification of the Constitution or by becoming a right by social discernment. (SM)

Describes school administrator preparation standards, especially those related to planning, developed by the Interstate School Leadership Licensure Consortium, a joint effort of the Council of Chief State School Officers and the National Policy Board for Educational Administration. Includes overview of planning models and analysis of knowledge areas related to planning. Draws implications for preparation programs. (Contains 59 references.) (PKP)

In the United States, education is not universally recognized as a fundamental right, and states' educational expenditures are inequitable. Whether international efforts to establish the right to education could influence the U.S. educational system through modifying or informing the Constitution, or by recognition through the Ninth Amendment, there is significant reform potential. (54 references) (MLH)

The relationship between planning and budgeting processes, and whether their integration can be related to institutional improvement were studied in a survey of 532 planning and business offices at 266 2-year colleges. The real benefits of linking planning and budgeting are outlined. (SLD)

During the past 50 years, educational planning has evolved into a recognized, somewhat esoteric field of study. The four major planning models are rationalism (comprehensive and bounded), incrementalism (or muddling through), mixed or environmental scanning, and goal-free (developmental) planning. Sound educational planning is people-oriented and incorporates elements of all four models. (Contains 60 references.) (MLH)

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.2008.00124.x Byline: Matthew C. Rousu (1), Robert H. Beach (2), Jay R. Corrigan (3) Abstract: Basic economic theory predicts that a consumer's willingness to pay for a good is affected by the availability of complements and substitutes. In an auction setting, this theory implies that the presence of complements would increase bid prices for a good, while the presence of substitutes would decrease bid prices for a good. We designed an experiment that allows the calculation of inverse elasticities, the inverse-demand equivalent of conventional price elasticities. Our results show that the availability of complements and substitutes affects bids in the expected directions. This finding has important implications for researchers who design experimental auctions. Selon la theorie economique de base, la volonte de payer d'un consommateur pour obtenir un bien est influencee par la disponibilite de complements et de substituts. Dans un scenario de vente aux encheres, cette theorie implique que la presence de complements ferait augmenter le prix offert pour un bien, tandis que la presence de substituts ferait diminuer le prix offert. Nous avons concu une experience qui a permis de calculer les elasticites inverses, l'equivalent de la demande inverse des elasticites-prix classiques. Nos resultats ont montre que la disponibilite de complements et de substituts influence les offres d'achat dans les directions prevues. Cette observation a d'importantes repercussions pour les chercheurs qui concoivent des ventes aux encheres experimentales. Author Affiliation: (1)Assistant Professor, Susquehanna University, 314 Steele Hall, Selinsgrove, PA 17870 (corresponding author: phone: 570-372-4186; fax: 570-372-2870; e-mail:rousu@susqu.edu). (2)Research Economist, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 (phone: 919-485-5579; fax: 919-541-6683; e-mail:rbeach@rti.org). (3)Assistant Professor, Kenyon College, Gambier, OH 43022 (phone: 740-427-5281; fax: 740-427-5276; e-mail:Corrigan@kenyon.edu).

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.2007.00103.x Byline: Robert H. Beach (1), Christine Poulos (2), Subhrendu K. Pattanayak (3) Abstract: Outbreaks of infectious animal diseases represent a major threat to agriculture and can impose significant social and economic costs. The potential for devastating epidemics, such as the recent outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in Asia, Europe, and Africa, has prompted major global investments in animal disease prevention and control, both public and private. However, there has been little research into the effects of alternative public policies on farm-level actions to prevent and control HPAI and the implications for disease impacts. Animal disease management involves both ex ante investments to reduce the probability of infection and ex post actions to contain the spread of disease once introduced. The public sector can play an important part in disease mitigation through provision of public disease prevention and control. Another vital role for government in mitigating the potential impacts of HPAI is in the development of well-designed policies to induce socially optimal ex ante private investment while providing incentives for truthful disclosure of disease status. This study employs an economic epidemiology framework to examine the effects of farmer behavior on disease introduction and transmission and to analyze the effects of public policy decisions under alternative scenarios. Les eclosions de maladies animales infectieuses representent une menace importante pour l'agriculture et peuvent entrainer des couts socio-economiques considerables. L'eventualite d'epidemies devastatrices, telles que les recentes flambees d'influenza aviaire hautement pathogene (IAHP) en Asie, en Europe et en Afrique, a suscite d'importants investissements publics et prives a l'echelle mondiale pour prevenir et lutter contre ces maladies. Cependant, peu de recherches se sont penchees sur les effets des politiques publiques de rechange sur les mesures prises a la ferme pour prevenir et lutter contre l'IAHP et les repercussions des maladies. La gestion des maladies animales necessite des investissements ex ante pour diminuer la probabilite d'infection et des mesures ex poste pour contenir la propagation d'une maladie une fois introduite. Le secteur public peut jouer un role important dans l'attenuation d'une maladie en instaurant des programmes publics de prevention et de lutte. Pour attenuer les consequences potentielles de l'IAHP, le gouvernement peut elaborer des politiques efficaces pour inciter des investissements prives ex ante socialement optimaux tout en offrant des stimulants pour encourager la divulgation veridique de la situation zoosanitaire. Dans la presente etude, nous avons utilise un cadre epidemiologique et economique pour examiner les consequences du comportement de l'exploitant agricole sur l'introduction et la transmission des maladies et pour analyser les consequences des decisions de politique publique selon divers scenarios. Author Affiliation: (1)Senior Economist, Food and Agricultural Policy Research Program, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194 (phone: +1-919-485-5579; fax: +1-919-541-6683; e-mail:rbeach@rti.org). (2)Senior Economist, Environmental and Natural Resource Economics Program, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194. (3)Fellow and Senior Economist, Public Health and Environment Division, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194.

Changing political and economic forces in 1 tobaccodependent state, North Carolina, demonstrate how the interplay between these forces and public health priorities has shaped current allocation of Master Settlement Agreement funds. Allocation patterns demonstrate lawmakers' changing priorities in response to changes in the economic climate; some of the agreement's funds targeted to tobacco farmers appear to reflect objectives favored by tobacco manufacturers. Funds earmarked for health have underfunded youth tobacco prevention and tobacco control initiatives, and spending for tobacco farmers in North Carolina has not lived up to the rhetoric that accompanied the original agreement. We discuss the implications of these findings for future partnerships between public health advocates and workers as well as tobacco control strategies. (doi: 10.2105/AJ PH.2005.070466)

Discusses the implications of a planning and decision concept, "Ideal Displacement." Cautions administrators that the process by which alternatives are developed, weighted, and selected has a profound impact on the quality of the decision. (MLF)

Describes a study which polled secondary school principals to determine the factors contributing to successful implementation of computer technology in instructional programs. Results indicate a strong positive relationship between principal effectiveness scores and successful implementation. Monetary support was the only demographic factor found to be related to successful implementation. (MBR)

Discusses several observations related to planning, decision-making, and change within the context of a predominantly norm-based educational system in Malawi. Differing cultural norms are behind observed "inefficiencies" in accessing enrollment information, changing leadership, and planning workshops. Includes 16 references. (MLH)