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Robotics can help address the growing worker shortage challenge of the manufacturing industry. As such, machine tending is a task collaborative robots can tackle that can also highly boost productivity. Nevertheless, existing robotics systems deployed in that sector rely on a fixed single-arm setup, whereas mobile robots can provide more flexibility and scalability. In this work, we introduce a multi-agent multi-machine tending learning framework by mobile robots based on Multi-agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) techniques with the design of a suitable observation and reward. Moreover, an attention-based encoding mechanism is developed and integrated into Multi-agent Proximal Policy Optimization (MAPPO) algorithm to boost its performance for machine tending scenarios. Our model (AB-MAPPO) outperformed MAPPO in this new challenging scenario in terms of task success, safety, and resources utilization. Furthermore, we provided an extensive ablation study to support our various design decisions., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures

Exploration in unknown and unstructured environments is a pivotal requirement for robotic applications. A robot's exploration behavior can be inherently affected by the performance of its Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) subsystem, although SLAM and exploration are generally studied separately. In this paper, we formulate exploration as an active mapping problem and extend it with semantic information. We introduce a novel active metric-semantic SLAM approach, leveraging recent research advances in information theory and spectral graph theory: we combine semantic mutual information and the connectivity metrics of the underlying pose graph of the SLAM subsystem. We use the resulting utility function to evaluate different trajectories to select the most favorable strategy during exploration. Exploration and SLAM metrics are analyzed in experiments. Running our algorithm on the Habitat dataset, we show that, while maintaining efficiency close to the state-of-the-art exploration methods, our approach effectively increases the performance of metric-semantic SLAM with a 21% reduction in average map error and a 9% improvement in average semantic classification accuracy., Comment: 8 pages, 5 figures

The relationship between measures of stenosis and microvascular resistance is of importance due to medical decisions being based on these values. This research investigates the impact of varying microvascular resistance on fractional flow reserve (FFR) and hyperaemic stenosis resistance (hSR). Microvascular resistance is classified using hyperaemic microvascular resistance (hMR). Additionally, hMR using the upstream pressure value (hMRPa) has also been calculated and is compared to hMR measured conventionally. Tests were conducted at three different degrees of stenosis (quantified by percent area) in a coronary flow circuit with varying downstream resistance to simulate the microvasculature. Pressure and flow values are recorded across the stenosed section, allowing for calculation of the diagnostic indexes. Results indicate that for a constant degree of stenosis, FFR would increase with increasing microvascular resistance while hSR would remain almost constant. hMRPa was found to approach hMR as the stenosis severity decreased, and the pressure gradient decreased. In the results shown here, with sufficiently high downstream resistance, an 84% stenosis could produce an FFR value over 0.8. This result suggests that there is the potential for misdiagnosis of the severity of stenosis when combined with elevated microvascular resistance. Consequently, decisions on the clinical significance of a stenosis, classified by FFR, need to consider the effect of the microvascular resistance., Comment: 25 pages including cover page. 9 figures in body and 2 in Appendix

In dynamic environments, the ability to detect and track moving objects in real-time is crucial for autonomous robots to navigate safely and effectively. Traditional methods for dynamic object detection rely on high accuracy odometry and maps to detect and track moving objects. However, these methods are not suitable for long-term operation in dynamic environments where the surrounding environment is constantly changing. In order to solve this problem, we propose a novel system for detecting and tracking dynamic objects in real-time using only LiDAR data. By emphasizing the extraction of low-frequency components from LiDAR data as feature points for foreground objects, our method significantly reduces the time required for object clustering and movement analysis. Additionally, we have developed a tracking approach that employs intensity-based ego-motion estimation along with a sliding window technique to assess object movements. This enables the precise identification of moving objects and enhances the system's resilience to odometry drift. Our experiments show that this system can detect and track dynamic objects in real-time with an average detection accuracy of 88.7\% and a recall rate of 89.1\%. Furthermore, our system demonstrates resilience against the prolonged drift typically associated with front-end only LiDAR odometry. All of the source code, labeled dataset, and the annotation tool are available at: https://github.com/MISTLab/lidar_dynamic_objects_detection.git

Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) generates discrete control policies, assigning one action per cycle. These policies are usually implemented as in a fixed-frequency control loop. This rigidity presents challenges as optimal control frequency is task-dependent; suboptimal frequencies increase computational demands and reduce exploration efficiency. Variable Time Step Reinforcement Learning (VTS-RL) addresses these issues with adaptive control frequencies, executing actions only when necessary, thus reducing computational load and extending the action space to include action durations. In this paper we introduce the Multi-Objective Soft Elastic Actor-Critic (MOSEAC) method to perform VTS-RL, validating it through theoretical analysis and experimentation in simulation and on real robots. Results show faster convergence, better training results, and reduced energy consumption with respect to other variable- or fixed-frequency approaches.

Traditional reinforcement learning (RL) methods typically employ a fixed control loop, where each cycle corresponds to an action. This rigidity poses challenges in practical applications, as the optimal control frequency is task-dependent. A suboptimal choice can lead to high computational demands and reduced exploration efficiency. Variable Time Step Reinforcement Learning (VTS-RL) addresses these issues by using adaptive frequencies for the control loop, executing actions only when necessary. This approach, rooted in reactive programming principles, reduces computational load and extends the action space by including action durations. However, VTS-RL's implementation is often complicated by the need to tune multiple hyperparameters that govern exploration in the multi-objective action-duration space (i.e., balancing task performance and number of time steps to achieve a goal). To overcome these challenges, we introduce the Multi-Objective Soft Elastic Actor-Critic (MOSEAC) method. This method features an adaptive reward scheme that adjusts hyperparameters based on observed trends in task rewards during training. This scheme reduces the complexity of hyperparameter tuning, requiring a single hyperparameter to guide exploration, thereby simplifying the learning process and lowering deployment costs. We validate the MOSEAC method through simulations in a Newtonian kinematics environment, demonstrating high task and training performance with fewer time steps, ultimately lowering energy consumption. This validation shows that MOSEAC streamlines RL algorithm deployment by automatically tuning the agent control loop frequency using a single parameter. Its principles can be applied to enhance any RL algorithm, making it a versatile solution for various applications.

The emerging behaviors of swarms have fascinated scientists and gathered significant interest in the field of robotics. Traditionally, swarms are viewed as egalitarian, with robots sharing identical roles and capabilities. However, recent findings highlight the importance of hierarchy for deploying robot swarms more effectively in diverse scenarios. Despite nature's preference for hierarchies, the robotics field has clung to the egalitarian model, partly due to a lack of empirical evidence for the conditions favoring hierarchies. Our research demonstrates that while egalitarian swarms excel in environments proportionate to their collective sensing abilities, they struggle in larger or more complex settings. Hierarchical swarms, conversely, extend their sensing reach efficiently, proving successful in larger, more unstructured environments with fewer resources. We validated these concepts through simulations and physical robot experiments, using a complex radiation cleanup task. This study paves the way for developing adaptable, hierarchical swarm systems applicable in areas like planetary exploration and autonomous vehicles. Moreover, these insights could deepen our understanding of hierarchical structures in biological organisms., Comment: 31 Pages, 7 Figures. Supplementary material attached to the paper

Reinforcement learning is a powerful technique for developing new robot behaviors. However, typical lack of safety guarantees constitutes a hurdle for its practical application on real robots. To address this issue, safe reinforcement learning aims to incorporate safety considerations, enabling faster transfer to real robots and facilitating lifelong learning. One promising approach within safe reinforcement learning is the use of control barrier functions. These functions provide a framework to ensure that the system remains in a safe state during the learning process. However, synthesizing control barrier functions is not straightforward and often requires ample domain knowledge. This challenge motivates the exploration of data-driven methods for automatically defining control barrier functions, which is highly appealing. We conduct a comprehensive review of the existing literature on safe reinforcement learning using control barrier functions. Additionally, we investigate various techniques for automatically learning the Control Barrier Functions, aiming to enhance the safety and efficacy of Reinforcement Learning in practical robot applications.

The widespread exchange of digital documents in various domains has resulted in abundant private information being shared. This proliferation necessitates redaction techniques to protect sensitive content and user privacy. While numerous redaction methods exist, their effectiveness varies, with some proving more robust than others. As such, the literature proposes several deanonymization techniques, raising awareness of potential privacy threats. However, while none of these methods are successful against the most effective redaction techniques, these attacks only focus on the anonymized tokens and ignore the sentence context. In this paper, we propose RedactBuster, the first deanonymization model using sentence context to perform Named Entity Recognition on reacted text. Our methodology leverages fine-tuned state-of-the-art Transformers and Deep Learning models to determine the anonymized entity types in a document. We test RedactBuster against the most effective redaction technique and evaluate it using the publicly available Text Anonymization Benchmark (TAB). Our results show accuracy values up to 0.985 regardless of the document nature or entity type. In raising awareness of this privacy issue, we propose a countermeasure we call character evasion that helps strengthen the secrecy of sensitive information. Furthermore, we make our model and testbed open-source to aid researchers and practitioners in evaluating the resilience of novel redaction techniques and enhancing document privacy.

Artistic performances involving robotic systems present unique technical challenges akin to those encountered in other field deployments. In this paper, we delve into the orchestration of robotic artistic performances, focusing on the complexities inherent in communication protocols and localization methods. Through our case studies and experimental insights, we demonstrate the breadth of technical requirements for this type of deployment, and, most importantly, the significant contributions of working closely with non-experts.

In this work we have investigated the synergy between Stage-IV galaxy surveys and future GW observatories for constraining the underlying cosmological model of the Universe, focussing on photometric galaxy clustering, cosmic shear and GW magnification as cosmological probes. We have implemented a Fisher matrix approach for the evaluation of the full $6\times2$pt statistics composed by the angular power spectra of the single probes together with their combination. For our analysis, we have in particular considered dynamical dark energy and massive neutrino scenarios. We have found that the improvement to galaxy survey performance is below 1\%, in the case $\ell^{\rm GW}_{\rm max}=100$ and a luminosity distance error of $\sigma_{d_L}/d_L=10\%$. However, when extending the analysis to $\ell^{\rm GW}_{\rm max}=1000$, we find that the GW magnification improves the galaxy survey performance on all the cosmological parameters, reducing their errors by $3\%$-$5\%$, when $\sigma_{d_L}/d_L=10\%$, and by $10\%$-$18\%$ when $\sigma_{d_L}/d_L=1\%$, especially for $M_\nu$, $w_0$ and $w_a$. However, here our analysis is unavoidably optimistic: a much more detailed and realistic approach will be needed, especially by including systematic effects. But we can conclude that, in the case of future gravitational wave observatories the inclusion of the gravitational wave magnification can improve Stage-IV galaxy surveys performance on constraining the underlying cosmological model of the Universe., Comment: 33 pages, 14 figures

Traditional Reinforcement Learning (RL) policies are typically implemented with fixed control rates, often disregarding the impact of control rate selection. This can lead to inefficiencies as the optimal control rate varies with task requirements. We propose the Multi-Objective Soft Elastic Actor-Critic (MOSEAC), an off-policy actor-critic algorithm that uses elastic time steps to dynamically adjust the control frequency. This approach minimizes computational resources by selecting the lowest viable frequency. We show that MOSEAC converges and produces stable policies at the theoretical level, and validate our findings in a real-time 3D racing game. MOSEAC significantly outperformed other variable time step approaches in terms of energy efficiency and task effectiveness. Additionally, MOSEAC demonstrated faster and more stable training, showcasing its potential for real-world RL applications in robotics.

Deploying controllers trained with Reinforcement Learning (RL) on real robots can be challenging: RL relies on agents' policies being modeled as Markov Decision Processes (MDPs), which assume an inherently discrete passage of time. The use of MDPs results in that nearly all RL-based control systems employ a fixed-rate control strategy with a period (or time step) typically chosen based on the developer's experience or specific characteristics of the application environment. Unfortunately, the system should be controlled at the highest, worst-case frequency to ensure stability, which can demand significant computational and energy resources and hinder the deployability of the controller on onboard hardware. Adhering to the principles of reactive programming, we surmise that applying control actions only when necessary enables the use of simpler hardware and helps reduce energy consumption. We challenge the fixed frequency assumption by proposing a variant of RL with variable control rate. In this approach, the policy decides the action the agent should take as well as the duration of the time step associated with that action. In our new setting, we expand Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) to compute the optimal policy with a variable control rate, introducing the Soft Elastic Actor-Critic (SEAC) algorithm. We show the efficacy of SEAC through a proof-of-concept simulation driving an agent with Newtonian kinematics. Our experiments show higher average returns, shorter task completion times, and reduced computational resources when compared to fixed rate policies., Comment: Paper for AAAI-DAI 2024 workshop

Safe landing is an essential aspect of flight operations in fields ranging from industrial to space robotics. With the growing interest in artificial intelligence, we focus on learning-based methods for safe landing. Our previous work, Dynamic Open-Vocabulary Enhanced SafE-Landing with Intelligence (DOVESEI), demonstrated the feasibility of using prompt-based segmentation for identifying safe landing zones with open vocabulary models. However, relying on a heuristic selection of words for prompts is not reliable, as it cannot adapt to changing environments, potentially leading to harmful outcomes if the observed environment is not accurately represented by the chosen prompt. To address this issue, we introduce PEACE (Prompt Engineering Automation for CLIPSeg Enhancement), an enhancement to DOVESEI that automates prompt engineering to adapt to shifts in data distribution. PEACE can perform safe landings using only monocular cameras and image segmentation. PEACE shows significant improvements in prompt generation and engineering for aerial images compared to standard prompts used for CLIP and CLIPSeg. By combining DOVESEI and PEACE, our system improved the success rate of safe landing zone selection by at least 30\% in both simulations and indoor experiments., Comment: arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2308.11471

We present a proposal for a new experiment, the FINUDA magnet for Light Axion SearcH (FLASH), a large resonant-cavity haloscope in a high static magnetic field which is planned to probe new physics in the form of dark matter (DM) axions, scalar fields, chameleons, hidden photons, as well as high frequency gravitational waves (GWs). Concerning the QCD axion, FLASH will search for these particles as the DM in the mass range (0.49-1.49) ueV, thus filling the mass gap between the ranges covered by other planned searches. A dedicated Microstrip SQUID operating at ultra-cryogenic temperatures will amplify the signal. The frequency range accessible overlaps with the Very High Frequency (VHF) range of the radio wave spectrum and allows for a search in GWs in the frequency range (100-300) MHz. The experiment will make use of the cryogenic plant and magnet of the FINUDA experiment at INFN Frascati National Laboratories near Rome (Italy); the operations needed to restore the functionalities of the apparatus are currently underway. We present the setup of the experiment and the sensitivity forecasts for the detection of axions, scalar fields, chameleons, hidden photons, and GWs.

This work targets what we consider to be the foundational step for urban airborne robots, a safe landing. Our attention is directed toward what we deem the most crucial aspect of the safe landing perception stack: segmentation. We present a streamlined reactive UAV system that employs visual servoing by harnessing the capabilities of open vocabulary image segmentation. This approach can adapt to various scenarios with minimal adjustments, bypassing the necessity for extensive data accumulation for refining internal models, thanks to its open vocabulary methodology. Given the limitations imposed by local authorities, our primary focus centers on operations originating from altitudes of 100 meters. This choice is deliberate, as numerous preceding works have dealt with altitudes up to 30 meters, aligning with the capabilities of small stereo cameras. Consequently, we leave the remaining 20m to be navigated using conventional 3D path planning methods. Utilizing monocular cameras and image segmentation, our findings demonstrate the system's capability to successfully execute landing maneuvers at altitudes as low as 20 meters. However, this approach is vulnerable to intermittent and occasionally abrupt fluctuations in the segmentation between frames in a video stream. To address this challenge, we enhance the image segmentation output by introducing what we call a dynamic focus: a masking mechanism that self adjusts according to the current landing stage. This dynamic focus guides the control system to avoid regions beyond the drone's safety radius projected onto the ground, thus mitigating the problems with fluctuations. Through the implementation of this supplementary layer, our experiments have reached improvements in the landing success rate of almost tenfold when compared to global segmentation. All the source code is open source and available online (github.com/MISTLab/DOVESEI)., Comment: IROS 2023 The Last-Mile Robotics Workshop

The LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) experiment is a dark matter detector centered on a dual-phase xenon time projection chamber. We report searches for new physics appearing through few-keV-scale electron recoils, using the experiment's first exposure of 60 live days and a fiducial mass of 5.5t. The data are found to be consistent with a background-only hypothesis, and limits are set on models for new physics including solar axion electron coupling, solar neutrino magnetic moment and millicharge, and electron couplings to galactic axion-like particles and hidden photons. Similar limits are set on weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) dark matter producing signals through ionized atomic states from the Migdal effect., Comment: 13 pages, 10 figures. See https://tinyurl.com/LZDataReleaseRun1ER for a data release related to this paper

One of the most important promises of decentralized systems is scalability, which is often assumed to be present in robot swarm systems without being contested. Simple limitations, such as movement congestion and communication conflicts, can drastically affect scalability. In this work, we study the effects of congestion in a binary collective decision-making task. We evaluate the impact of two types of congestion (communication and movement) when using three different techniques for the task: Honey Bee inspired, Stigmergy based, and Division of Labor. We deploy up to 150 robots in a physics-based simulator performing a sampling mission in an arena with variable levels of robot density, applying the three techniques. Our results suggest that applying Division of Labor coupled with versioned local communication helps to scale the system by minimizing congestion.

Swarm robotics is an emerging field of research which is increasingly attracting attention thanks to the advances in robotics and its potential applications. However, despite the enthusiasm surrounding this area of research, software development for swarm robotics is still a tedious task. That fact is partly due to the lack of dedicated solutions, in particular for low-cost systems to be produced in large numbers and that can have important resource constraints. To address this issue, we introduce BittyBuzz, a novel runtime platform: it allows Buzz, a domain-specific language, to run on microcontrollers while maintaining dynamic memory management. BittyBuzz is designed to fit a flash memory as small as 32 kB (with usable space for scripts) and work with as little as 2 kB of RAM. In this work, we introduce the BittyBuzz implementation, its differences from the original Buzz virtual machine, and its advantages for swarm robotics systems. We show that BittyBuzz is successfully integrated with three robotic platforms with minimal memory footprint and conduct experiments to show computation performance of BittyBuzz. Results show that BittyBuzz can be effectively used to implement common swarm behaviors on microcontroller-based systems., Comment: 6 pages

This paper presents a scalable solution with adjustable computation time for the joint problem of scheduling and assigning machines and transporters for missions that must be completed in a fixed order of operations across multiple stages. A battery-operated multi-robot system with a maximum travel range is employed as the transporter between stages and charging them is considered as an operation. Robots are assigned to a single job until its completion. Additionally, The operation completion time is assumed to be dependent on the machine and the type of operation, but independent of the job. This work aims to minimize a weighted multi-objective goal that includes both the required time and energy consumed by the transporters. This problem is a variation of the flexible flow shop with transports, that is proven to be NP-complete. To provide a solution, time is discretized, the solution space is divided temporally, and jobs are clustered into diverse groups. Finally, an integer linear programming solver is applied within a sliding time window to determine assignments and create a schedule that minimizes the objective. The computation time can be reduced depending on the number of jobs selected at each segment, with a trade-off on optimality. The proposed algorithm finds its application in a water sampling project, where water sampling jobs are assigned to robots, sample deliveries at laboratories are scheduled, and the robots are routed to charging stations.

Maintaining energy sufficiency of a battery-powered robot system is a essential for long-term missions. This capability should be flexible enough to deal with different types of environment and a wide range of missions, while constantly guaranteeing that the robot does not run out of energy. In this work we present a framework based on Control Barrier Functions (CBFs) that provides an energy sufficiency layer that can be applied on top of any path planner and provides guarantees on the robot's energy consumption during mission execution. In practice, we smooth the output of a generic path planner using double sigmoid functions and then use CBFs to ensure energy sufficiency along the smoothed path, for robots described by single integrator and unicycle kinematics. We present results using a physics-based robot simulator, as well as with real robots with a full localization and mapping stack to show the validity of our approach.

This paper presents a novel solution for UAV control in cooperative multi-robot systems, which can be used in various scenarios such as leader-following, landing on a moving base, or specific relative motion with a target. Unlike classical methods that tackle UAV control in the world frame, we directly control the UAV in the target coordinate frame, without making motion assumptions about the target. In detail, we formulate a non-linear model predictive controller of a UAV, referred to as the agent, within a non-inertial frame (i.e., the target frame). The system requires the relative states (pose and velocity), the angular velocity and the accelerations of the target, which can be obtained by relative localization methods and ubiquitous MEMS IMU sensors, respectively. This framework eliminates dependencies that are vital in classical solutions, such as accurate state estimation for both the agent and target, prior knowledge of the target motion model, and continuous trajectory re-planning for some complex tasks. We have performed extensive simulations to investigate the control performance with varying motion characteristics of the target. Furthermore, we conducted real robot experiments, employing either simulated relative pose estimation from motion capture systems indoors or directly from our previous relative pose estimation devices outdoors, to validate the applicability and feasibility of the proposed approach.

We propose a novel real-time LiDAR intensity image-based simultaneous localization and mapping method , which addresses the geometry degeneracy problem in unstructured environments. Traditional LiDAR-based front-end odometry mostly relies on geometric features such as points, lines and planes. A lack of these features in the environment can lead to the failure of the entire odometry system. To avoid this problem, we extract feature points from the LiDAR-generated point cloud that match features identified in LiDAR intensity images. We then use the extracted feature points to perform scan registration and estimate the robot ego-movement. For the back-end, we jointly optimize the distance between the corresponding feature points, and the point to plane distance for planes identified in the map. In addition, we use the features extracted from intensity images to detect loop closure candidates from previous scans and perform pose graph optimization. Our experiments show that our method can run in real time with high accuracy and works well with illumination changes, low-texture, and unstructured environments., Comment: Accepted by ICRA 2023, code released: https://github.com/SnowCarter/Intensity_based_LiDAR_SLAM.git

Collaborative Simultaneous Localization And Mapping (C-SLAM) is a vital component for successful multi-robot operations in environments without an external positioning system, such as indoors, underground or underwater. In this paper, we introduce Swarm-SLAM, an open-source C-SLAM system that is designed to be scalable, flexible, decentralized, and sparse, which are all key properties in swarm robotics. Our system supports inertial, lidar, stereo, and RGB-D sensing, and it includes a novel inter-robot loop closure prioritization technique that reduces communication and accelerates convergence. We evaluated our ROS-2 implementation on five different datasets, and in a real-world experiment with three robots communicating through an ad-hoc network. Our code is publicly available: https://github.com/MISTLab/Swarm-SLAM, Comment: Code: https://github.com/MISTLab/Swarm-SLAM

The LUX-ZEPLIN experiment recently reported limits on WIMP-nucleus interactions from its initial science run, down to $9.2\times10^{-48}$ cm$^2$ for the spin-independent interaction of a 36 GeV/c$^2$ WIMP at 90% confidence level. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analysis of the backgrounds important for this result and for other upcoming physics analyses, including neutrinoless double-beta decay searches and effective field theory interpretations of LUX-ZEPLIN data. We confirm that the in-situ determinations of bulk and fixed radioactive backgrounds are consistent with expectations from the ex-situ assays. The observed background rate after WIMP search criteria were applied was $(6.3\pm0.5)\times10^{-5}$ events/keV$_{ee}$/kg/day in the low-energy region, approximately 60 times lower than the equivalent rate reported by the LUX experiment., Comment: 25 pages, 15 figures