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This case study delves into the complexities faced by Principal Williams, a newly appointed leader at Hudford Elementary School, as she navigates the challenges of providing high-quality education for students with disabilities in an elementary school. Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), each student with a disability is required to have access to the general education curriculum and specially designed instruction (SDI) that is tailored to the student's unique needs. As Principal Williams steps into her role as leader of Hudford Elementary School, she has questions about the current service delivery model for students, the distribution of responsibilities across general and special education, and the extent of inclusion. She is considering her next steps, including how she will address some problematic working conditions experienced by special educators at the school. Through this case, readers gain insights into the complexity of supporting students with disabilities in a time of teacher shortages and learn about identifying the resources teachers need to fulfill their responsibilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retaining teachers is an important priority for school leaders, especially in special education, a field with chronic shortages. We analyzed a nationally representative survey using conservation of resources theory to examine how job demands and resources interacted with one another and with teachers' assignments (i.e., as special and general educators) to predict intentions to continue teaching. We found that teachers were more inclined to stay in their schools when they experienced stronger school administrative and collegial support, had more access to instructional materials, and were more experienced. Teachers indicated weaker intent to stay when they experienced more problems with students, spent more time working, were less experienced, and served in higher-poverty schools. School administrative support moderated relationships between intent and (a) school poverty and (b) experience. We found no differences between special and general educators' intent to stay, though we did find differences in the conditions predicting special versus general educators' intent.

Special education teachers (SETs) are expected to use effective practices to improve outcomes for students with disabilities, yet even those who are well-prepared may not be effective in teaching these students, as problematic working conditions may limit their opportunities to teach effectively and their longevity in the profession. To complicate matters, the context of SETs' work has changed, calling into question the nature of their roles in supporting student learning. The purpose of this article is to provide a broad overview of what is known about working conditions and to articulate how we might improve them. The authors identify key themes from the research literature about the relationship of SETs' working conditions to their early experiences in schools and their burnout, attrition, and effectiveness. The authors then outline an action agenda focused on researching and leveraging the roles of varied stakeholders, teacher educators, educational leaders, and professional organizations to improve these conditions.

Purpose: Creating inclusive schools for students with disabilities is a major leadership responsibility for principals throughout the world. Each national, regional and local context is different, but every principal can help create and support inclusive schools. The purpose of this article is to describe the evolving context of inclusive education and school leadership in the United States aligning what is known to an established leadership framework (Hitt and Tucker, 2016), as there are similarities between the Hitt and Tucker domains and the work of leaders in inclusive schools. The authors emphasize that inclusive leadership is consistent with existing conceptualizations of principals' work. The authors consider specific policies and organizational conditions that support inclusive schools and highlight successes and continuing challenges for principals that can be applied throughout the world. Design/methodology/approach: This paper utilizes an exploratory approach to review the US policy-related and empirical literature on school leadership for effective inclusive schools. The authors draw across time from research syntheses in school and inclusive leadership from leading journals in educational leadership, special education and edited volumes focused on school leadership. The authors analyze common themes centered on leadership practice, organizational and social conditions and challenges. Findings: The research review identified effective leadership practices that support inclusive education in the United States and provides a critical discussion of how these findings relate to international research and practice. Practical implications: The paper considers the relevance of national policy contexts coupled with a review of school leadership for inclusive schools that is insightful for policymakers and practitioners seeking to create more inclusive schools throughout the world. Originality/value: The paper offers a situated review of leadership for inclusive schools in the United States. As such, this review lays the foundation for a comparative and international conversation on school leadership for inclusion.

High rates of attrition make it challenging for schools to provide qualified special education teachers for students with disabilities, especially given chronic teacher shortages. We synthesize 30 studies from 2002 to 2017, examining factors associated with special educator attrition and retention, including (a) teacher preparation and qualifications, (b) school characteristics, (c) working conditions, and (d) teacher demographic and nonwork factors. Most studies examined working conditions (e.g., demands, administrative and collegial supports, resources, compensation) among special educators who left teaching, moved to other positions, transferred to general education teaching, or indicated that they intended to stay or leave. The majority of researchers used quantitative methods to analyze national, state, or other survey data, while eight used qualitative methods. Our critique identifies both strengths and weaknesses of this literature, suggests research priorities, and outlines specific implications for policy makers and leaders.

Students benefit from a teacher workforce that represents the full racial/ethnic diversity of the United States. We examine racial/ethnic composition of general education teacher (GET) and special education teacher (SET) workforce using the Schools and Staffing Survey. We find that the teacher workforce continues to be primarily White. In 2011-2012, 18% of SETs and GETS were people of color; however, 47% of students with disabilities were students of color. Among teachers of color, the majority identify as Black or Hispanic, with a smaller proportion of Hispanic SETs than GETs. Early career SETs are racially/ethnically similar to experienced SETs, while early career GETs are somewhat more diverse. There were dramatic differences across regions, type of districts, and schools; higher percentages of teachers of color taught in high-poverty and urban schools as well as in schools with higher enrollments of students of color. Results have important implications for education policy and teacher preparation.

Improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities and others who struggle in school largely depends on teachers who can deliver effective instruction. Although many effective practices have been identified to address the academic and behavioral needs of students who struggle in school, including those with disabilities, these practices are not used extensively in classrooms. This article provides a rationale for and description of major changes that are occurring in teacher preparation programs that are designed to improve the practice of beginning teachers. This is followed by a description of a set of high-leverage practices that was recently approved by the Council for Exceptional Children. These practices represent an initial attempt to delineate a core curriculum for special education teacher preparation to support the changes that are occurring in teacher education.

Induction is designed to support teachers' effectiveness, improve their students' learning, and foster their retention. We consider how high-leverage practices (HLPs) might provide an instructional framework for special education teacher (SET) induction. With sensemaking theory as a conceptual foundation, we posit that, by structuring induction experiences and instructional conditions around HLPs, schools and districts can send more coherent messages about effective instruction, thereby easing new SETs' efforts to make sense of their roles. We first provide a brief review of research on new SETs' experiences. Next, we consider how "specific induction components" (i.e., professional development and mentoring, teacher evaluation, and collaboration) and "instructional conditions" (i.e., collaboration, instructional curricula and resources, and schedules) might be structured to support SETs' learning of and use of these HLPs. We conclude with considerations for researchers and practitioners.

School leadership is critical to provide students with disabilities with opportunities to learn in inclusive schools. We summarise research about inclusive leadership, outlining factors that promoted and impeded inclusive schools in the United States. Next, we provide an example of a national collaboration between the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability, and Reform (CEEDAR) Center that linked the "Professional Standards for Educational Leaders" (PSEL; National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2015) to a supplemental guidance document, titled "PSEL 2015" and "Promoting Principal Leadership for the Success of Students With Disabilities." The latter illustrates what effective inclusive school leadership means for each of the 10 PSEL standards, and provides recommendations for improving leadership preparation and policy, including licensure. We also consider possible implications of this work for those in other countries, emphasising the need for widely understood and shared leadership practices and the need to link such practices to initial and ongoing leadership development.

Although researchers have developed evidence-based practices and identified other effective practices that show promise for improving outcomes for students with disabilities, these practices are all too frequently not used in inclusive classrooms. Some have posited that this research-to-practice gap may result because teachers lack confidence in these practices and do not find them feasible for use in their classrooms. More recently, researchers have begun to examine whether teacher education may contribute to this research-to-practice gap. We contend that teacher preparation is an important contributor to the research-to-practice gap, and discuss how teacher preparation might be changed to better prepare teachers to use effective practices in inclusive classrooms. Primary changes that are needed include identifying a set of high-leverage practices that serve as the core curriculum of teacher education and using a practice-based approach to systematically prepare future teachers to use these practices.

The objective of this article is to examine the degree to which different U.S. states have a special education teaching workforce that is racially/ethnically representative of students with disabilities in their state. Using the Teacher-Student Parity Index (TSPI), a standardized metric for comparing representation across states with different demographics, the authors calculated the extent to which teacher and student racial/ethnic diversity is aligned in all 50 U.S. states. At the end of the article, they provide specific recommendations for cultivating a racially/ethnically diverse special education teacher workforce, including how states, districts, and schools can use the TSPI to assess changes in parity over time.

This study examined data from full- and part-time public school teachers who completed the Schools and Staffing Survey: Teacher Questionnaire (SASS TQ) and reported the number of threats and physical attacks occurring within 12 months. "T" tests were used to identify statistically significant differences between special education teachers and general education teachers on threats and attacks, as well as to compare special education teachers to general education teachers across 11 teaching areas identified by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES). Findings reveal that special education teachers were statistically significantly more likely to be threatened and attacked than their general education counterparts. The findings also indicated that both general and special education teachers are more likely to be threatened than attacked by students. Special educators voiced concerns about the lack of open discussion regarding student-on-teacher assaults and concerns about confidentiality, since educators who are not the teacher of record may not have information about prior assaults, leaving them vulnerable. Suggestions for preventing students-on-teacher threats and attacks are provided. Suggested resources for leaders are included.

Casting special education teacher development as an avatar living in a virtual and changing landscape is a creative way to consider the current state of the field and project possible futures. In this commentary, the authors consider areas that may help strengthen the Avatar, including conceptualizing and identifying the outcomes of teacher education, and aligning teacher preparation practices to achieve these outcomes from entry into teacher preparation through induction and ongoing professional development.

New special education teachers (SETs) face some typical challenges as well as ones that are specific to their particular work settings. Providing support that addresses teachers' unique needs is important for increasing their effectiveness, helping them make a smooth entry into teaching, and reducing their stress and turnover. Nearly 20 years ago, the first studies of new SETs were published with a focus on their needs and mentor programs of support. More recently, conceptualizations of induction have broadened to include online professional communities of practice (CoP) and numerous online resources have been developed to support teachers, including Web 2.0 technologies. This article considers high quality online resources that can be used by new teachers and incorporated into traditional mentor programs or virtual systems of support. In addition, emerging opportunities to further new teacher support via Web 2.0 environments are discussed. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)

The authors used teacher data from the Study of Personnel Needs in Special Education to compare the district and school supports, work manageability, professional development, and induction of early career special educators in high- and low-poverty districts. Teachers in high-poverty districts reported less desirable work conditions than their counterparts in more affluent districts. When compared to teachers in low-poverty districts, those in less affluent districts viewed their principals and colleagues as less supportive, perceived less involvement in school decisions, reported having fewer materials, and indicated higher and more diverse caseloads. By contrast, the two teacher groups reported similar professional development and induction opportunities. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

Seven boys, 10 to 14 years old, with autism spectrum disorders and good verbal communication, were interviewed to determine how they establish and maintain friendships. Parents and the boys' teachers were interviewed for supportive information. All of the boys had friends, and 6 described establishing friendships as the most difficult aspect. Reasons for difficulty in establishing friendships included the desire not to be the one who initiated contact, the intention to avoid violating the social hierarchy of the school, and concerns related to being exploited or being a nuisance. The 7th boy did not desire friendships beyond family friends. All participants described shared interests as critical to maintaining friendships. Four youth have maintained stable friendships across distances and transitions. (Contains 4 tables.)

A growing body of evidence suggests teachers first experiences in the classroom have an impact on their effectiveness, their students' achievement, and the teaching practices they will use for many years. New special educators experience many of the same challenges as other new teachers. Both general and special educators struggle with addressing student behavior, learning content, planning lessons, and managing time. This article provides a holistic view of special education teachers' first years and outlines practical considerations for improving their experiences in schools. Over the past 15 years, a number of researchers have studied the perspectives of new special educators during their first years of teaching. Implications from this knowledge base are outlined with nine specific recommendations for improving the work lives of new special education teachers.

In this article, the authors propose an agenda for special education teacher education researchers, with particular attention to policy work and studies of innovations in pre-service preparation, induction and mentoring, and professional development. Because previous research is limited and unfocused, the foundation for future research is weak, but opportunities to study questions of importance and interest are seemingly limitless. The authors discuss strategies to bolster the research foundation, namely, by oversampling special education teachers in the Schools and Staffing Survey and the Teacher Follow-Up Survey and by fostering the development of models of teacher development and related measures of teacher quality.

Although effective practices have been developed to address the needs of a wide range of students with disabilities, evidence suggests a limited use of these practices. Potential contributors to the research-to-practice gap focus on problems with pre-service teacher preparation, professional development, and the nature of research. The authors present evidence that the lack of well-qualified special education teachers, the instability of special education teachers in teaching positions (i.e., attrition and migration), and inadequate work conditions contribute to the research-to-practice gap. They also address the need for comprehensive, coordinated, and sustained efforts to reduce the teacher shortage and improve the likelihood that special educators have the work conditions needed to use effective practices. (Contains 2 tables.)