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Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among seafloor hydrothermal systems known anywhere in the world. It has two distinct vent fields, known as the NW caldera and cone sites, whose geology, permeability, vent fluid compositions, mineralogy and ore forming conditions are in stark contrast to each other. The NW caldera site strikes for ~600 m in a SW-NE direction with chimneys occurring over a ~145 m depth interval, between ~1,690 and 1,545 m. At least 100 dead and active sulfide chimney spires occur in this field, as seen during manned submersible dives, and are typically 2-3 m in height, although locally reach 6-7 m. Their ages fall into three groups: 0-4 years (at time of sampling), 23 and 35 years old. The chimneys typically occur near the base of individual fault-controlled benches on the caldera wall, striking in lines orthogonal to the slopes. More rare are massive sulfide crusts up to 2-3 m thick. Two main types of chimney predominate: Cu-rich chimneys (with parts up to 28.5 wt.% Cu) and more commonly, Zn-rich chimneys (up to 43.8 wt.% Zn). Geochemical results indicate a "magmatic" suite of elements associated with the Cu mineralization, including up to 91 ppm Au, and an ‘epithermal’ suite of elements with the dominant Zn-rich chimneys. The cone site comprises the Upper cone site atop the summit of the recent (main) dacite cone, and the Lower cone site that straddles the summit of an older, smaller, more degraded dacite cone on the NE flank of the main cone. Huge volumes of diffuse venting are seen at the Lower cone site, in complete contrast to venting at both the Upper cone and NW caldera sites. Individual vents are marked by low relief (≤0.5 m) mounds comprised predominately of native sulfur with bacterial mats. Vent fluids of the NW caldera field are focused, hot (≤300°C), acidic (pH ≥ 2.8), metal-rich and relatively gas-poor. Calculated end-member fluids from various NW caldera vents indicate phase-separation has occurred with Cl values ranging from 93% to 137% seawater values. By contrast, vent fluids for the cone site are diffuse, noticeably cooler (≤122°C), very acidic (to pH = 1.86), relatively metal-poor and very gas-rich. Higher-than-seawater values of SO4 and Mg in the cone vent fluids show that these ions are being added to the hydrothermal fluid and are not being depleted via normal water/rock interactions. Three year old Fe-oxide crusts covering the main cone summit appear to have formed from Fe-rich brines. Evidence for magmatic contributions to the hydrothermal system at Brothers includes: high concentrations of dissolved CO2 (e.g., 206 mM/kg at the cone site), high CO2/3He values, negative δD and δ18OH2O values for vent fluids, negative δ34S values for sulfides (to -4.6‰), sulfur (to -10.2‰) and δ15N2 (to -3.5‰), vent fluid pH values to -1.9 and mineral assemblages of chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, covelllite and euhedral grains of hematite. Changing physio-chemical conditions at the Brothers hydrothermal system, and especially the cone site, occur over months to hundreds of years, as shown by interlayed Cu/Au- and Zn-rich zones in chimneys, variable fluid and isotopic compositions between vents, similar shifts in 3He/4He values for both cone and NW caldera sites, and overprinting of "magmatic" mineral assemblages by water/rock dominated ones. Metals, especially Cu and possibly Au, may be entering the hydrothermal system via the dissolution of metal-rich glasses. They are then transported rapidly up into the system via magmatic volatiles utilizing vertical (~2.5 km long), narrow (~300 m diameter) "pipes", consistent with evidence of vent fluids forming at higher than hydrostatic pressures, at relatively shallow depths. The NW caldera and cone sites are considered to represent stages along a continuum between magmatic-hydrothermal and water/rock-dominated end-members.

Objectives: Outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis associated with ‘Norwalk-like viruses' (NLVs) cause significant health problems in hospitals. Hospital outbreaks in the Stockholm area in 1996 were investigated, in order to identify the magnitude of the problem, the mode of transmission, the effect of control measures and the genetic variability of outbreak strains. Determining the epidemiological and clinical significance involves a broad range of possibilities. Methods: Ten hospitals, representing 66% of the hospitals in the Stockholm area, participated in the study, which included 211 wards. Of these, 18 were selected as control. A standardized protocol that included personal contacts was administered. Outbreak wards were visited between 5 and 10 times. Wards that had reported outbreaks in 1996 were prospectively followed through 1999 by personal contacts, and the available data from 1991 on outbreak reports were collected. A total of 253 stool samples from outbreaks in 1996 were analyzed by electron microscopy (EM) for the presence of NLVs. Positive samples were confirmed by the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results: In total, 4326 patients and 1119 staff were exposed on the 43 wards that reported 54 outbreaks. The mean attack rate was 13% for patients and 21% for staff. The number of outbreaks in 1996 outnumbered the reported outbreaks in the preceding years (4–70%) and later years (35–40%). Admission to 24 (56%) of the outbreak wards was stopped. The mean duration of illness for patients was 35 hours and for staff, 30 hours. The main symptoms were diarrhoea (80%) and vomiting (68%). Genotyping revealed that the majority of the hospital outbreaks in the Stockholm area in 1996 were caused by a single NLV strain. Conclusions: The study confirmed that outbreaks of NLV are an increasing public-health problem in hospitals. The risk of being affected by an outbreak was significantly greater on wards that had reported outbreaks in the previous year. It was not obvious which measures had helped to shorten the outbreaks to any appreciable extent. Different managements must therefore be carefully interpreted and adapted to the prevailing circumstances. Genotyping of strains is an important tool of getting a better insight into transmission routes and the mechanism behind the appearance of epidemic strains.