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This article presents the results of research on the thermal state of vacuum switch contacts during the conduction of short-circuit currents. This state is directly related to the value of the flowing current and the operating conditions of the switch. These conditions are mildest in the case of the conduction of operating currents through closed contacts. The situation worsens significantly when short-circuit currents are conducted, and the greatest destructive effects occur during commutation processes. Exceeding a certain level of contact destruction usually leads to the loss of the switching capacity of the switch. In vacuum switches, tracking the thermal state of the contacts is particularly difficult due to the inaccessibility of transducers or measurement sensors inside the chamber. In such a case, simulation studies verified by experimental results are important. This paper presents the results of such studies, directed at their practical implementation in the design and operation of vacuum switches. Simulation studies were conducted to analyze the thermal processes occurring in the contacts of vacuum switches during the conduction of short-circuit currents. Special attention was paid to the influence of contact parameters on the thermal processes occurring during the conduction of short-circuit currents. In addition to simulations, experimental studies were carried out to verify the simulation results. Ultimately, the research results presented are intended to provide practical knowledge of the design and operation of vacuum switches, particularly with regard to the contact heating processes during the conduction of short-circuit currents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Micro-Electromechanical-Relay (MER) has widely achieved application in the field of engineering thanks to the excellent features and ever-growing interest in microelectronic products. However, the adhesion phenomenon between gold-sputtered contact pairs in MER usually brings about operating failure of normally closed contacts limiting the reliability level of MER. In this paper, various contact combinations between electrical contact pairs are assembled to simulate real contact conditions, and associated failure type is built by taking advantage of mechanical adhesion theory to reveal failure mechanism about cold adhesion. It is found that the adhesion force is correlated closely with the surface roughness of contact pairs. The specific contact combination is a significant effective strategy to reduce the adhesion failure between electrical contacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contact finger electrical connection structure is a crucial component of high voltage bushings, and its safety and reliability directly impact the operational stability of the bushing. To investigate electrical contact performance of the contact finger under eccentric conditions, a three‐dimensional electrical, thermal, and force multi‐physics coupling calculation model was established. Additionally, a test platform was constructed to measure electrical contact characteristics of the contact finger. The contact characteristics of the contact finger when the male head was axially deflected and radially offset compared to the female head were obtained. The research findings indicate when the male head deflects axially, the contact force changes of the contact finger blades on both sides are opposite. Moreover, as the axial deflection angle of the male head increases, the resistance of the electrical connection structure shows a rising‐slow decreasing‐fluctuating trend. The resistance is highest at 3°, with a resistance increase rate of 7.35%. Furthermore, the resistance of the electrical connection structure varies with the radial offset of the male head, following a power function. Contact failure occurs when the radial offset is 1.31 mm, and the resistance increase rate reaches 24.9% at a radial offset of 1.58 mm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The contact finger electrical connection structure is a crucial component of high voltage bushings, and its safety and reliability directly impact the operational stability of the bushing. To investigate electrical contact performance of the contact finger under eccentric conditions, a three‐dimensional electrical, thermal, and force multi‐physics coupling calculation model was established. Additionally, a test platform was constructed to measure electrical contact characteristics of the contact finger. The contact characteristics of the contact finger when the male head was axially deflected and radially offset compared to the female head were obtained. The research findings indicate when the male head deflects axially, the contact force changes of the contact finger blades on both sides are opposite. Moreover, as the axial deflection angle of the male head increases, the resistance of the electrical connection structure shows a rising‐slow decreasing‐fluctuating trend. The resistance is highest at 3°, with a resistance increase rate of 7.35%. Furthermore, the resistance of the electrical connection structure varies with the radial offset of the male head, following a power function. Contact failure occurs when the radial offset is 1.31 mm, and the resistance increase rate reaches 24.9% at a radial offset of 1.58 mm.

Graphene with an atomically thin structure is considered to be a highly sensitive transducer capable of converting diverse external stimuli into measurable electrical signals. The generated signals, such as current and resistance, can be extracted through electrical contact to graphene. Conventional methods for contact formation are usually based on physical deposition of conductive materials on the target graphene. Here, we propose a method for in situ chemical synthesis of electrical contacts to graphene as an alternative approach that complements conventional physical methods. CO2 laser irradiation on a polyimide film with monolayer graphene on top can convert the polyimide surface to conductive electrodes of laser-induced graphene (LIG) that electrically connect to the existing graphene channel. Laser-scribing conditions, such as the power and scan rate, can modulate the contact resistance of the LIG–graphene junction. Various arbitrary shapes of in situ LIG contacts can be scribed to the direct writing ability of the laser. The proposed in situ LIG contact method can be extended to other carbon nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and PEDOT:PSS. As a proof of concept of the in situ LIG contacts to graphene for electronic device applications, graphene field-effect transistors were demonstrated on a graphene-supported polyimide substrate with LIG–graphene junctions as source/drain electrodes. Our approach will pave the way for the simple and low-cost fabrication of versatile graphene electronic devices by utilizing the existing LIG technology specialized for energy devices and sensors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microscope projection photolithography (MPP) offers a versatile method of prototyping microscale devices. The benefits of MPP include the ability to create features at a variety of dimensions, the ability to work outside of a clean room, and the ability to use robotic microscope stage controls to adjust the positions of features easily and accurately. This makes MPP a precise, yet flexible technique ideal for manufacturing contact pads that can be used to investigate the properties of individual nanowires. An enormous breadth of research has been dedicated to the synthesis and characterization of nanowires. The properties of individual nanowires can, however, vary greatly between syntheses or within a batch. Characterization of individual nanowires remains an important step in the scale-up of these materials. Their characterization does, however, often require complex and highly sensitive self-assembly techniques to arrange nanowires on substrates with proper placement of electrical contacts. Some work has been done on techniques for the selective characterization of individual nanowires, but those methods rely on using focused electron-beam writing techniques to connect nanowires to pre-existing electrical contacts. The study of nanowires would benefit from a rapid, flexible approach to fabricating contacts for individual nanowires. This study demonstrates a system for fabricating electrical contacts with minimum feature sizes of ∼0.9 μm on individual nanowires (e.g., diameters from <75 to >125 nm) that are positioned randomly on a small substrate (e.g., <1 cm2). Designs for double and quadruple contact pads have been shown to enable the effective measurement of the electrical properties of individual nanowires. The techniques provided herein can provide a rapid, simple, and customizable method of studying individual nanowires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: The innovative graphene-enhanced CuW composites can be applied to 252~1100 kV high-voltage circuit breakers to improve the breaking capacity of high-voltage circuit breakers. To address the issue of over-standard short-circuit currents in a power system, it is imperative to enhance the comprehensive performance of the electrical contacts, which serve as the lynchpin of circuit breakers, so as to improve the breaking capacity of high-voltage circuit breakers. Graphene, as the most prominent two-dimensional carbon material in recent years, has garnered widespread applications across various fields. In this study, graphene-enhanced CuW composites for high-voltage circuit breaker electrical contacts were prepared innovatively using integrated vacuum infiltration technology. The innovative graphene-enhanced CuW composites significantly improved the mechanical, electrical, and ablation resistance properties, and have been successfully applied in the 252 kV/63 kA high-voltage SF6 circuit breakers, achieving 20 times effective consecutive full-capacity short-circuit current breaking. It provides a new route for the development and application of high-performance CuW electrical contacts. Looking ahead, it is planned to extend their application to higher voltage grade high-voltage circuit breakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Recent discovery of ultrathick MoSi2N4(MoN)n monolayers open up an exciting platform to engineer two‐dimensional (2D) material properties via intercalation architecture. In this study, a series of ultrathick MA2N4(M'N) monolayers (M, M' = Mo, W; A = Si, Ge) is computationally investigated under both homolayer and heterolayer intercalation architectures, in which the same and different species of transition metal nitride inner core sublayer are intercalated by outer passivating nitride sublayers, respectively. The MA2N4(M'N) are stable metallic monolayers with excellent mechanical strength. Intriguingly, the metallic states around Fermi level are localized within the inner core sublayer. Carrier conduction mediated by electronic states around the Fermi level is thus spatially insulated from the external environment by the native outer nitride sublayers, suggesting the potential of MA2N4(M'N) in back‐end‐of‐line metal interconnect applications. N and Si (or Ge) vacancy defects at the outer sublayers create ‘punch through’ states around the Fermi level that bridges the carrier conduction in the inner core sublayer and the outer environment, forming an electrical contact akin to the ‘via' structures of metal interconnects. It is further shown that MoSi2N4(MoN) can serve as a quasi‐Ohmic contact to 2D WSe2. These findings reveal the potential of ultrathick MA2N4(MN) monolayers in interconnect and metal contact applications.

Wireless power transfer (WPT) is now ubiquitous, having penetrated almost every industry within the last 20 years, due to certain desirable attributes explained in this paper. Furthermore, WPT is now in an advanced state whereby it is now technically feasible to apply the methods of WPT to the connector industry and surmount commonplace problems that have plagued the electrical connector industry since the invention of the first electrical connector in 1885. Whereas other common technologies have evolved greatly over the last two centuries with the emergence and development of new primary mechanisms, the primary mechanism used in electrical connectors-the electrical contact-has not changed. The electrical contact is the source of many failure modes, several of which can be eliminated by applying the WPT methodology through a new type of connector called the Non-Metallic Connector (NMC). As a result, connectors can now be made entirely contactless, possessing a hermetically sealed interface that is also shockproof. The NMC concept is applicable to both signal transfer and power transfer. NMCs fall into the categories of both near-zone and far-zone technologies, necessitating thereby the introduction of the $\mu $ WPT in the commonly accepted WPT hierarchy. Appropriate circuit topologies as well as major design challenges are identified for power-transfer NMCs with appropriate methods to overcome those challenges, based on the electrical power handling requirement.

This article presents the results of research on the thermal state of vacuum switch contacts during the conduction of short-circuit currents. This state is directly related to the value of the flowing current and the operating conditions of the switch. These conditions are mildest in the case of the conduction of operating currents through closed contacts. The situation worsens significantly when short-circuit currents are conducted, and the greatest destructive effects occur during commutation processes. Exceeding a certain level of contact destruction usually leads to the loss of the switching capacity of the switch. In vacuum switches, tracking the thermal state of the contacts is particularly difficult due to the inaccessibility of transducers or measurement sensors inside the chamber. In such a case, simulation studies verified by experimental results are important. This paper presents the results of such studies, directed at their practical implementation in the design and operation of vacuum switches. Simulation studies were conducted to analyze the thermal processes occurring in the contacts of vacuum switches during the conduction of short-circuit currents. Special attention was paid to the influence of contact parameters on the thermal processes occurring during the conduction of short-circuit currents. In addition to simulations, experimental studies were carried out to verify the simulation results. Ultimately, the research results presented are intended to provide practical knowledge of the design and operation of vacuum switches, particularly with regard to the contact heating processes during the conduction of short-circuit currents.

The article presents the results of laboratory measurements of Ud breakdown voltages in a high-voltage vacuum insulating system for different pressures, contact gaps, type of electrode contacts and type of residual gas inside the discharge chamber. First of all, the electrical strength of the discharge chamber with a contact system terminated with contact pads made of W 70Cu 30 and Cu 75Cr 25 material was compared for selected values of contact gaps. It was found that below a pressure of p = 3.0 x 10 -1 Pa the electrical strength reaches an approximately constant value for each of the set contact gaps d. Analytical relationships were determined to calculate this value for each of the contact pads used. Above a pressure of p = 3.0 x 10 -1 Pa, the measured values of Ud breakdown voltages decrease sharply. The values of breakdown voltages in the discharge chamber with residual gases in the form of air, argon, neon and helium were also determined for selected values of contact gaps d. Depending on the residual gases used, significant differences were noted in the values of pressure p at which the loss of insulating properties in the discharge chamber occurred. These values were 3.3 x 10 -1 Pa for argon, 4.1 x 10 -1 Pa for air, 6.4 x 10 -1 Pa for neon, and 2.55 x 10 0 Pa for helium, respectively.

To address the issue of over-standard short-circuit currents in a power system, it is imperative to enhance the comprehensive performance of the electrical contacts, which serve as the lynchpin of circuit breakers, so as to improve the breaking capacity of high-voltage circuit breakers. Graphene, as the most prominent two-dimensional carbon material in recent years, has garnered widespread applications across various fields. In this study, graphene-enhanced CuW composites for high-voltage circuit breaker electrical contacts were prepared innovatively using integrated vacuum infiltration technology. The innovative graphene-enhanced CuW composites significantly improved the mechanical, electrical, and ablation resistance properties, and have been successfully applied in the 252 kV/63 kA high-voltage SF6 circuit breakers, achieving 20 times effective consecutive full-capacity short-circuit current breaking. It provides a new route for the development and application of high-performance CuW electrical contacts. Looking ahead, it is planned to extend their application to higher voltage grade high-voltage circuit breakers.

The article presents the results of laboratory measurements of Ud breakdown voltages in a high-voltage vacuum insulating system for different pressures, contact gaps, type of electrode contacts and type of residual gas inside the discharge chamber. First of all, the electrical strength of the discharge chamber with a contact system terminated with contact pads made of W70Cu30 and Cu75Cr25 material was compared for selected values of contact gaps. It was found that below a pressure of p = 3.0x10-1 Pa the electrical strength reaches an approximately constant value for each of the set contact gaps d. Analytical relationships were determined to calculate this value for each of the contact pads used. Above a pressure of p = 3.0 x 10-1 Pa, the measured values of Ud breakdown voltages decrease sharply. The values of breakdown voltages in the discharge chamber with residual gases in the form of air, argon, neon and helium were also determined for selected values of contact gaps d. Depending on the residual gases used, significant differences were noted in the values of pressure p at which the loss of insulating properties in the discharge chamber occurred. These values were 3.3 x 10-1 Pa for argon, 4.1 x 10-1 Pa for air, 6.4 x 10-1 Pa for neon, and 2.55 x 100 Pa for helium, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tungsten carbide (WC) particles reinforced copper (Cu) composites (1⁓5 wt.% WC/Cu) were fabricated by a hot-pressed sintering process and their mechanical, electrical properties and sliding wear behaviors were studied. The results show that the relative density and electrical conductivity of the sintered composites decrease whereas the microhardness increase, with increasing the mass fraction of WC reinforcements. During the sliding wear tests without electrical current, the wear rate of the WC/Cu composites decreases with an increase of WC reinforcement mass fraction. The increase in the normal load leads to the increase of wear rate. The wear rate under electrical contact increases with the increase of electrical current density. The dominant wear mechanism under electrical contact sliding conditions is the combination of the abrasive wear and oxidations resulted from electrical currents. The WC/Cu composites are promising electrical contact materials to restrain spark/arc discharge during the electrical contact sliding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, hard wear-resistant Ti-Si-C coatings were deposited on Cu-Cr materials to improve their performance as sliding electrical contact materials. A ceramic disk composed of Ti3SiC2 and TiC phases was used as a target for DC magnetron sputtering to deposit the coatings. The influence of the power supplied to the magnetron on the chemical composition, structure, and friction coefficient of the coatings was examined. The coatings demonstrated high hardness (23–25 GPa), low wear rate (1–3 × 10−5 mm3/N/m) and electrical resistance (300 μOhm·cm), and fair resistance to electroerosion. The coating deposited at 450 W for 30 min displayed optimal properties for protecting the Cu-Cr alloy from the arc effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

2D materials van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) provide a revolutionary route toward high‐performance solar energy conversion devices beyond the conventional silicon‐based pn junction solar cells. Despite tremendous research progress accomplished in recent years, the searches of vdWHs with exceptional excitonic solar cell conversion efficiency and optical properties remain an open theoretical and experimental quest. Here, this study shows that the vdWH family composed of MoSi2N4 and WSi2N4 monolayers provides a compelling material platform for developing high‐performance ultrathin excitonic solar cells and photonics devices. Using first‐principle calculations, 51 types of MoSi2N4 and WSi2N4‐based [(Mo,W)Si2N4] vdWHs composed of various metallic, semimetallic, semiconducting, insulating, and topological 2D materials are constructed and classified. Intriguingly, MoSi2N4/(InSe, WSe2) are identified as Type II vdWHs with exceptional excitonic solar cell power conversion efficiency reaching well over 20%, which are competitive to state‐of‐the‐art silicon solar cells. The (Mo,W)Si2N4 vdWH family exhibits strong optical absorption in both the visible and UV regimes. Exceedingly large peak UV absorptions over 40%, approaching the maximum absorption limit of a freestanding 2D material, can be achieved in (Mo,W)Si2N4/α2‐(Mo,W)Ge2P4 vdWHs. The findings unravel the enormous potential of (Mo,W)Si2N4 vdWHs in designing ultimately compact excitonic solar cell device technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Tribologie und Schmierungstechnik is the property of Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH & Co.KG and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Passive intermodulation (PIM) is a niggling phenomenon that debilitates the performance of modern communications and navigation systems. PIM products interfere with information signals and cause their nonlinear distortion. The sources and basic mechanisms of PIM have been studied in the literature but PIM remains a serious problem of signal integrity. In this paper, the main sources and mechanisms of PIM generation by joints of good conductors are discussed. It is shown that the passive electrical, thermal and mechanical nonlinearities are intrinsically linked despite their distinctively different time scales. The roughness of the contact surfaces plays an important role in PIM generation by conductor joints. A review of the PIM phenomenology at the contacts of the good conductors suggests that novel multiphysics models are necessary for the analysis and reliable prediction of PIM products generated by several concurrent nonlinearities of a diverse physical nature.

Abstract 2D materials van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) provide a revolutionary route toward high‐performance solar energy conversion devices beyond the conventional silicon‐based pn junction solar cells. Despite tremendous research progress accomplished in recent years, the searches of vdWHs with exceptional excitonic solar cell conversion efficiency and optical properties remain an open theoretical and experimental quest. Here, this study shows that the vdWH family composed of MoSi2N4 and WSi2N4 monolayers provides a compelling material platform for developing high‐performance ultrathin excitonic solar cells and photonics devices. Using first‐principle calculations, 51 types of MoSi2N4 and WSi2N4‐based [(Mo,W)Si2N4] vdWHs composed of various metallic, semimetallic, semiconducting, insulating, and topological 2D materials are constructed and classified. Intriguingly, MoSi2N4/(InSe, WSe2) are identified as Type II vdWHs with exceptional excitonic solar cell power conversion efficiency reaching well over 20%, which are competitive to state‐of‐the‐art silicon solar cells. The (Mo,W)Si2N4 vdWH family exhibits strong optical absorption in both the visible and UV regimes. Exceedingly large peak UV absorptions over 40%, approaching the maximum absorption limit of a freestanding 2D material, can be achieved in (Mo,W)Si2N4/α2‐(Mo,W)Ge2P4 vdWHs. The findings unravel the enormous potential of (Mo,W)Si2N4 vdWHs in designing ultimately compact excitonic solar cell device technology.

High electrical and thermal contact resistances can ruin a thermoelectric device's performance, and thus, the use of effective diffusion barriers and optimization of joining methods are crucial to implement them. In this work, the use of carbon as a Cu11Mn1Sb4S13 tetrahedrite diffusion barrier, and the effectiveness of different fixation techniques for the preparation of tetrahedrite/copper electrical contacts were investigated. Contacts were prepared using as jointing materials Ni and Ag conductive paints and resins, and a Zn-5wt% Al solder. Manual, cold- and hot-pressing fixation techniques were explored. The contact resistance was measured using a custom-made system based on the three points pulsed-current method. The legs interfaces (Cu/graphite/tetrahedrite) were investigated by optical and scanning electron microscopies, complemented with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. No interfacial phases were formed between the graphite and the tetrahedrite or Cu, pointing to graphite as a good diffusion barrier. Ag water-based paint was the best jointing material, but the use of hot pressing without jointing materials proves to be the most reliable technique, presenting the lowest contact resistance values. Computer simulations using the COMSOL software were performed to complement this study, indicating that high contact resistances strongly reduce the power output of thermoelectric devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Joining by forming operations presents powerful and complex joining techniques. Clinching is a well-known joining process for use in sheet metalworking. Currently, clinched joints are focusing on mechanically enhanced connections. Additionally, the demand for integrating electrical requirements to transmit electrical currents will be increased in the future. This integration is particularly important, for instance, in the e-mobility sector. It enables connecting battery cells with electrical joints of aluminum and copper. Systematic use of the process-specific advantages of this joining method opens up the possibility to find and create electrically optimized connections. The optimization for the transmission of electrical currents will be demonstrated for clinched joints by adapting the tool geometry and the clinched joint design. Based on a comparison of the electrical joint resistance, the limit use temperature is defined for the joining materials used based on the microstructural condition and the aging condition due to artificial aging. As a result of the investigations carried out, reliable current transmission at a constant conductor temperature of up to 120 °C can be achieved for clinched copper–copper joints. In the case of pure aluminum joints and mixed joints of aluminum and copper, long-term stable current transmission can be ensured up to a conductor temperature of 100 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Aiming at the fast protection requirements of electrical ships LVDC distribution system, this paper studies a topology of unidirectional vacuum hybrid circuit breaker. The hybrid circuit breaker is an improved current injection LVDC breaker based on precharged capacitor, which improves the dielectric recovery capability of vacuum interrupter after artificial current zero by using a freewheel diode. A synthetic test platform is built to study the dielectric strength recovery characteristics of a 45 mm diameter CuCr50 butt contact vacuum interrupter (driven by Thomson coil actuator, average opening speed of about 3 m/s)under high current(about 20 kA) and small gap(about 1 mm). The experimental results indicate that the dielectric strength of the contact can recover at a very fast speed within the arc time of 100 µs; when the arc time is increased to 320 µs, the dielectric strength of the contact cannot recover for a long time. Therefore, the design principle of the circuit breaker is obtained: within the arc time of 100 µs, by increasing the arc time can increase the contact distance, so the transient interruption voltage tolerance margin of the circuit breaker can be improved. Based on the results of the test, this paper also proposes a calculation method of forced commutation circuit parameters, which is verified by the simulation. The research results show that the DC circuit breaker can realise the rapid breaking of 20 kA fault current within 2 ms, and has a good application prospect in the LVDC distribution system.

This review summarizes the advancement on sintered composites based on tungsten–copper (W–Cu) reinforced with graphene (Gr) or its derivative such as reduced Gr oxide (rGO) for use as electrical contacts applied in switching devices. Main synthesis approaches for preparing Gr or rGO reinforced W–Cu composite powders and their consolidations by using various powder metallurgy techniques are presented. The nature of the initial materials, synthesis conditions, processing parameters, and the relevant findings are disclosed and discussed. The improvement in microstructure and technical characteristics like density, electrical conductivity, hardness, coefficient of friction, wear rate, and arc ablation behavior of W–Cu–Gr/rGO composites are highlighted comparatively with that of unreinforced composites. This review reveals an insight into a novel class of composites as candidates for electrical contact applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The use of a focused ion beam to decompose a precursor gas and produce a metallic deposit is a widespread nanolithographic technique named focused ion beam induced deposition (FIBID). However, such an approach is unsuitable if the sample under study is sensitive to the somewhat aggressive exposure to the ion beam, which induces the effects of surface amorphization, local milling, and ion implantation, among others. An alternative strategy is that of focused electron beam induced deposition (FEBID), which makes use of a focused electron beam instead, and in general yields deposits with much lower metallic content than their FIBID counterparts. Methods: In this work, we optimize the deposition of tungsten-carbon (W-C) nanowires by FEBID to be used as electrical contacts by assessing the impact of the deposition parameters during growth, evaluating their chemical composition, and investigating their electrical response. Results: Under the optimized irradiation conditions, the samples exhibit a metallic content high enough for them to be utilized for this purpose, showing a room-temperature resistivity of 550 μΩ cm and maintaining their conducting properties down to 2 K. The lateral resolution of such FEBID W-C metallic nanowires is 45 nm. Conclusions: The presented optimized procedure may prove a valuable tool for the fabrication of contacts on samples where the FIBID approach is not advised

In this work, the wear and melt erosion behavior of tin-plated copper alloy contacts are investigated under fretting at current loads ranging from 0.1 to 12.5 A. Three typical variations in the average values of contact resistance and contact temperature with fretting cycles are recorded and interpreted explicitly. The material melt erosion in the contact interface is observed clearly at currents higher than 5 A due to substantial Joule heat. The increment of contact temperature together with the distortion of transient friction force are considered as the degradation characteristics in the fretting. The produced scars and oxides between the contact interface eventually lead to the electric circuit disconnection. The distinct physical mechanism of contact interface fretting wear and melt erosion at high current loads is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A silicon microparticulate material (SiMP) used as the anode for lithium‐ion batteries promises higher volumetric capacity and less interfacial reactions than its costly nanoparticulate counterpart. However, what mostly hinders its practical use is its expansion and pulverization during cycling that induces electrical disconnection and electrode polarization. A liquid metal (LM) is proposed as a remedy for these problems that acts as an adaptive conducting continuum to cure both short‐ and long‐range electrical disconnection. LM encapsulated in a carbon layer constructs a local electrical "ocean" adaptively connecting pulverized Si "islands" upon cycling. Furthermore, carbon nanofibers grown on the LM provide long‐range conducting bridges between the microparticulates, which allow the production of thick electrodes that can be used with SiMPs. With the increased tap densities (4.15 and 1.75 g cm−3 respectively for the composite and the electrode), these thick electrodes give highly stable and superior volumetric lithium storage. These results pave the way for practical compact lithium batteries with SiMPs that have a high‐volumetric energy density. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the proposed course is to enhance students' knowledge, engineering skills and understanding in the field of electrical contacts power engineering – the currents of contact welding. The main goal for students is to acquire brief skills concerning measurements of certain parameters using static layout: currents that cause contact welding, clamping force of contacts joints and breaking force. Moreover, students are encouraged to obtain soft skills like confidence in the mentioned field and creativity. Student work during the exercise is evaluated on the basis of report from laboratory work and test. Essential aspect is safety training while working with HV and MV switchgears – that is another obligatory feature which participants will obtain from this course. Course results were evaluated as significant on the basis of concluded statistical analysis and comparison to previous formula employed during the classes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Tribologie und Schmierungstechnik is the property of Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH & Co.KG and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The electrical contact resistance (ECR) of copper (Cu‐ETP R200, soft) contacts for resistance welding (RW) is characterized. ECR plays a major role in the RW process and provides local heat generation between the parts. A special determination method is used on different testing variants to observe the influence of contact pressure (two levels: 68, 155 MPa), contact temperature (20–550 °C), and surface parameters, like roughness or oxide layer thickness, on the specific electrical contact resistance (SECR). For each surface parameter, three different levels are investigated. The study shows decreasing SECR with higher mechanical load on the contact and a more complex behavior for increase in contact temperature. SECR shows a characteristic behavior for contact states near the temperature‐dependent tensile strength of the base material for rough and clean surfaces, where SECR approaches toward zero. The variation of oxide layer thickness and surface roughness has a strong influence on the resulting SECR and both surface parameters show a strong coupling regarding their effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Joining by forming operations presents powerful and complex joining techniques. Clinching is a well-known joining process for use in sheet metalworking. Currently, clinched joints are focusing on mechanically enhanced connections. Additionally, the demand for integrating electrical requirements to transmit electrical currents will be increased in the future. This integration is particularly important, for instance, in the e-mobility sector. It enables connecting battery cells with electrical joints of aluminum and copper. Systematic use of the process-specific advantages of this joining method opens up the possibility to find and create electrically optimized connections. The optimization for the transmission of electrical currents will be demonstrated for clinched joints by adapting the tool geometry and the clinched joint design. Based on a comparison of the electrical joint resistance, the limit use temperature is defined for the joining materials used based on the microstructural condition and the aging condition due to artificial aging. As a result of the investigations carried out, reliable current transmission at a constant conductor temperature of up to 120 °C can be achieved for clinched copper–copper joints. In the case of pure aluminum joints and mixed joints of aluminum and copper, long-term stable current transmission can be ensured up to a conductor temperature of 100 °C.

[Display omitted] • Electroless Ag, Ni and Cr layers were successfully obtained on Cu particles. • Electroless plating layers were detected at the grain boundaries of Cu-based materials. • Electrical contact performances were improved over conventional electrical contacts. • Thanks to electroless Ni, wear performance was increased 3 times compared to Cu. • FGM design with Ni showed 10 times higher arc erosion performance compared to Cu. In this study, hot pressing was used to fabricate the novel copper based functionally graded electrical contact materials synthesized by silver, nickel and chrome plated copper core particles. For the fabrication of functionally graded materials (FGMs) by hot-pressing; pure copper, two and three layered metallic powders were used in the lower, middle and upper layer, respectively. The wear and arc-erosion performances of the developed materials increased from 3 to 10 times as compared to that of pure copper. Wear tests showed that the abrasive wear mechanism was dominant for the FGMs including electroless nickel and chromium coating layer. The highest specific wear rate (SWR) value was found in Cu f -Ag′ (4.9 × 10−4 mm3/Nm) materials under the load of 20 N while the lowest SWR value belongs to Cu f -Ag-Ni′ (2.3 × 10−4 mm3/Nm) materials under the load of 10 N. While severely melted and deformed regions are dominant on arc erosion surfaces of pure copper and copper-silver containing contacts, flatter and relatively less melted regions were detected on the surfaces of FGMs containing nickel and chromium. The arc-erosion loss values (cm3 × 10−4) measured for FGM 1 sample were 0.75 and 0.70, 0.99 and 0.88, 1.21 and 1.04 at 3000 cycles under the current of 5 A, 10 A and 15 A in fixed and moving contacts, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a computer vision inspection methodology is presented for the detection and segmentation of areas of wear by electric arc on the surface of electrical contacts using segmentation by instances. Cadmium is a toxic metal frequently used in the manufacture of alloys for electrical contact, so efforts have been made to replace or eliminate this element from the industry. Our work proposes an approach oriented to the automation of the inspection process, which reduces the subjectivity of the repetitive task of inspecting electrical contacts, allowing to compare two different alloys, such as one with Cadmium (Cd) and the other with Copper (Cu)., subjected to the same conditions and determine which of them presents less wear by electric arc. In this way you can know if the new part is better, equal or worse in terms of performance. Initially, an adaptation was made of the source code hosted in a github repository of mask R-CNN of the Matterport corporation, where variables, classes were modified, and directories were created according to our needs. The results obtained show that the masks generated by the algorithm adjust very well to contact wear, despite the irregular shape of the damage. However, the "charred" edge was probably not considered, because in training images it was a feature that few images presented, so segmentation may not be considering this factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A spring beam in a miniature electrical switch enables the two electrical contacts to either close or separate and supplies both current and necessary contact pressure between the contacts. Arc erosion and material transfer between the contacts occur, and those aspects depend on various parameters including the kinematics of the contacts. Therefore, the mechanical properties of the spring beam will affect the arc erosion and material transfer, but this topic has not been well studied. In this study, the material transfer phenomena between two AgCu contacts attached to a spring beam made of three different copper-based strip alloys were investigated after 30,000 switching operations under 12 V and 9 A in a direct-current resistive load circuit. For spring beams made of beryllium copper (BeCu) and titanium copper (TiCu) alloy, the material transfer occurred from the cathode to the anode. However, an opposite material transfer occurred for a spring beam made of Corson-type (CuNiSi) alloy. The make- and break-arc voltage waveforms were analyzed, and the results showed that the changes in arcing behaviors depend on the spring beam material. The properties of the spring beam materials responsible for the changed arcing behaviors are discussed and their relationship with the observed contact arc erosion and material transfer is analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analytical transmission electron microscopy has been applied to characterize the microstructure, phase and chemical composition of the Ag–Al wear track throughout its thickness down to the atomic level. Microscopy findings have been correlated with Ag–Al film tribological properties to understand the effect of the hexagonal solid solution phase on the tribological properties of this film. Ag–25Al (at.%) films have been produced by simultaneous magnetron sputtering of components in Ar atmosphere under 1 mTorr pressure and subjected to pin-on-disc tribological tests. It has been shown that hcp phase with (001) planes aligned parallel to the film surface dominates both in as-deposited and in tribofilm areas of the Ag–Al alloy film. Possible mechanisms of reduced friction in easily oxidized Ag–Al system are discussed and the mechanism based on readily shearing basal planes of the hcp phase is considered as the most probable one.

A reliable method is proposed for measuring specific contact resistivity (pC) for graphenemetal contacts, which is based on a contact end resistance measurement. We investigate the proposed method with simulations and confirm that the sheet resistance under the metal contact (RSK) plays an important role, as it influences the potential barrier at the graphene-metal junction. Two different complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor-compatible aluminum-based contacts are investigated to demonstrate the importance of the sheet resistance under the metal contact: the difference in RSK arises from the formation of insulating aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and aluminum carbide (Al4C3) interfacial layers, which depends on the graphene pretreatment and process conditions. Auger electron spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy support electrical data. The method allows direct measurements of contact parameters with one contact pair and enables small test structures. It is further more reliable than the conventional transfer length method when the sheet resistance of the material under the contact is large. The proposed method is thus ideal for geometrically small contacts where it minimizes measurement errors and it can be applied in particular to study emerging devices and materials.

A pantograph–catenary system (PCS) – an essential component to supply a high-speed train (HST) – faces a variety of new challenges due to the continuously increasing train speeds. The HST traction system receives power via an electrical contact between the pantograph strip and the high-voltage contact wire. This electrical contact is subject to serious mechanical shocks and significant electrochemical corrosion, making the modelling of the dynamic processes complicated, especially under high-speed and heavy-load conditions. The damage to the PCS – which is particularly noticeable at the edges of the pantograph strip – may become severe as the speed of the train rises. Moreover, as the speed increases, the distribution of the electrical current in the strip becomes uneven due to the velocity skin effect (VSE). To assess the impact of the VSE on the performance of PCSs, a multi-physics model has been created and is reported in this study. The model has been validated through experiments and the main aspects of its functionality – such as the VSE, friction, and air convection – have been identified and analysed at different speeds. The impact of speed on the traction current and the behaviour of thermal sources have been explored. With the increasing speed, the phenomenon of current clustering at the trailing edge of the strip becomes quite dramatic, resulting in a thermal surge in the region of the strip with high current density. To mitigate the negative impact caused by VSE in the PCSs, an improved kriging optimisation methodology has been utilised to optimise the parameters of the PCS. Recommendations regarding the optimal design of the PCS are put forward to improve the current-carrying performance and reduce the local temperature rise in the strip.

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Radio frequency (RF) coaxial connectors are important constituents of modern communication systems. The degraded electrical contacts may adversely affect the signal transmission efficiency particularly in the case of loose connections. In this study, a distributed equivalent model of a coaxial connector with degraded receptacle and the loose connection was developed. The scattering parameters were analysed from the perspectives of both experimental testing and model simulation. The equivalent model and experimental results show good agreement. The impact of the degraded receptacle and loose connection on signal integrity was studied along with its electrical performance repeatability for different cases with respect to a degraded and loose connector. In addition, for the same degradation and loose level, the variation of contact resistance and contact capacitance was also investigated. These results are helpful for a better understanding of the intermittent failure of RF connectors. Moreover, these conclusions are also useful for diagnosing circuit faults caused by deteriorated repeatability of degraded and loose connectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, an attempt is made to explore the effects of normal force and temperature on the threshold displacement amplitudes of tin-plated electrical contacts at elevated temperatures. Fretting tests were conducted at 323, 348, and 373 K at normal forces of 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 N. Riders and flats made from a 0.3-mm-thick brass sheet were coated with $10~\mu \text{m}$ of tin. Dimples were commonly found at the center of the contact area of the test specimens corresponding to an unlimited lifetime. In the testing temperature range, the threshold displacement amplitude decreases with an increase in the temperature and with a decrease in the normal force. In this range, the threshold displacement amplitude was found to be controlled by the oxidation of a tin-plated surface. The activation energy was found to be 7.5 kJ/mole, which is close to the value of the activation energy for the growth of tin oxide film. The threshold displacement amplitude can be represented in the form of an Arrhenius equation and is proportional to the normal force. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various types of electrical connectors are available globally. Electrical connectors are one of the critical components in many applications, including the automotive sector. They are primarily used to supply high power (or high currents) to other connected devices, such as batteries, electronics, and motors. in both conventional and hybrid/electric vehicles. Finite element modeling (FEM) is one of the tools through which better electrical connector designs can be created, and thus, enhanced performance of these connectors can be achieved. This article presents a comprehensive review of the FEM of electrical connectors performed until now in both the bulk regions as well as the contact regions by researchers worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein, the electrical contact formation between the electrodes of the micro four‐point technique and a semiconducting sample is described. It is shown that the contact is formed in two stages: a voltage‐induced electrical contact formation, followed by a current‐induced decrease in contact resistance. Moreover, a method is proposed allowing for precise control of the final contact resistance. Finally, it is demonstrated that the contacting process is similar on 1D fin structures, where the demonstrated control of the electrical contact is needed while measuring on nanometer‐wide fins in arrays with a pitch smaller than the electrode contact size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]