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Our study aimed to evaluate the effects of nano and chelated Fe fertilization on nutrient and heavy metals uptake and their translocation from soil to root, stem, leaf, and fruits of fresh market tomatoes (Solanum Lycopersicon, cv. Sunbrite). A completely randomized design in a factorial experiment, with two Fe sources (nano vs. chelated) applied at 0 (control), 10, 20, and 40 mg/L via drip-irrigated plasticulture, was conducted. Nutrient and heavy metals concentrations in soil, water, tomato roots, stems, leaves, and fruits were determined. Soil had higher K, Fe, Ca, Mg, P, and Mn but lower Ni, Cd, and Cr concentrations. The P, K, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Na concentrations in the roots were significantly affected by both nano and chelated Fe fertilization; however, without following a consistent pattern. Averaged across the Fe treatments, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and P that translocated from the soil were dominated in the roots, stems, and leaves. The nutrient translocation order, from roots to fruits in response to Fe fertilization, was nano Fe (40%) > chelated Fe (37%) > control (23%). Based on the treatment index values calculated across treatments, it is evident that Fe fertilization plays a pivotal role in nutrient uptake and translocation. The use of chelated Fe at a concentration of 20 mg/L had a pronounced effect on improving the nutritional quality of the tomatoes and, by extension, their associated public health benefits. In conclusion, the chelated Fe (20 mg/L) stands out as the most preferable and effective Fe fertilization for tomatoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effect that the order of administrating forages into the portion has on the consumption speed of the forages. Experiments A (order corn silage-pasture hay) and B (order pasture hay-corn silage) involved 10 multiparous Romanian Black and White cows. Cows were in their first 100 days of lactation and were housed in a tied stanchion barn 24 hours per day. Ration offered comprised corn silage (20 kg), pasture hay (8 kg), concentrates (3 kg) and brewer’s yeast (2 kg). Cows were fed three times per day, at 7:00, 13:00 and 19:00. Consumption speed was calculated in minutes per kilograms of raw feed. Average consumption speed values were calculated as follows: concentrates 3.04 min/kg, pasture hay 25.45 min/kg, corn silage 4.96 min/kg and brewer’s yeast 2.34 min/kg.

Distance is a key constraint for animals in moving between suitable habitats, but is this also the case in staging long-distance migrating shorebirds that habitually cover thousands of kilometers during migrations? We conducted multi-year field observations, benthic prey sampling and satellite tracking, to compare how endangered great knots Calidris tenuirostris respond to the food shortage at two similarly functioning staging sites (Gaizhou and Beijingzi) in the northern Yellow Sea, China. Food availability declined by >95 % at both sites across the study period, with the intake rates of great knots declining by 87 %. However, whereas the number of great knots declined by 91 % at Gaizhou, only a 29 % decrease was seen at Beiijngzi. Satellite tracking showed that during the time when food was poor in Gaizhou, tagged great knots crossed 20 km to suitable alternative high-quality sites where food was not scarce. From Beijingzi, tagged great knots flew at least 124 km to find a good alternative. We show that longer distances to alternative sites decreased the probability of a bird leaving. Thus, habitat degradation in staging sites induced great knots to move to alternative sites, but only if such alternatives were relatively close. As staging habitats become more isolated, the negative effects of habitat degradation will be more serious due to a distance constraint on exploratory movements. This emphasizes the importance of maintaining networks of nearby high-quality refueling sites for migratory birds to provide buffers in seasons when local food conditions are lean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the feeding behaviour of indigenous goats and the selection drivers of different plant species in a Mediterranean forest rangeland. To achieve this goal, the seasonal variations in terms of forage availability and quality of ingested plant species were studied during three grazing seasons. In the same period, eight indigenous goats of Beni Arouss breed were selected to explore the seasonal changes in their browsing behaviour. Forage quality was determined by the hand-plucking technique. The results showed a wide seasonal variation in forage availability and quality, and feeding behaviour. Woody species were more selected independently of the season (p < 0.001). The crude protein content varied from 53.3 g/kg of dry mater (DM) for Erica arborea in summer to 197 g/kg DM for Calicotome villosa in autumn (p < 0.001). Despite the high condensed tannins content in selected shrubs, they were highly consumed. In vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) and metabolizable energy (ME) had recorded the highest contents in herbaceous during spring. Shrubs and trees contain the lowest levels of IVOMD (<500 g/kg) and ME (<7.2 MJ/kg) during autumn and summer. It is concluded that seasonal changes in forage availability and quality did not necessarily affect the indigenous goats' preference. These findings could help goat herders to develop feeding and grazing systems while increasing the performance of goats in the Mediterranean silvopastoral system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The costs and benefits of group living are not evenly distributed among individuals that occupy different spatial positions within a group (central or peripheral). However, the definitions of central and peripheral positions may artificially mask the true dynamics of cost and benefit of individuals. Using wintering foraging Greater White-fronted Geese (Anser albifrons) flocks as our study system, we measured individual spatial position within a flock as distance to the flock edge. First, we tested the effects of distance to edge on the antipredation cost and foraging benefit of individual goose using generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs). Flock size and number of neighbors and their interactions with distance to edge were included as fixed effects in GLMMs. Then we used piecewise regression to determine the threshold value of distance to edge to classify central and peripheral individuals. Our results indicated distance to edge significantly affected percent of time spent on vigilance (vigilance time), percent of time spent on foraging (foraging time) and intake rate (pecks/min), whereas other factors had no effects. We found that the critical distance that predicted changes in behavior was around 2.5 ​m. Birds 2.5 ​m or less from the edge of the group were more vigilant, and had less efficient foraging than more central individuals. Behavioral differences between central and peripheral individuals were more easily detected when the birds were classified by the method introduced in this study than by the traditional minimum convex polygon method. Our research provides researchers a dichotomous classification scheme that places individuals into peripheral and central positions from an individual's perspective.

Subject. In technological and general ventilation ducts with a given uniformity of intake is often needed to be designed. The calculation of pressure losses in such ducts is complicated by the lack of reliable information about the characteristics of the flows at the inlet to the intake openings and slots. Intensity of air intake through slot openings located on one and two opposite walls of the duct in a series of sequentially placed slots, which determines the presence of a transit air stream passing by the hole is calculated. The slots are perpendicular to the generatrix panel and can be opposite or offset relative to each other. The presence of a stagnant zone formed when the flow is cut off from a sharp edge at the inlet is taken into account. Methods. The search for a solution is carried out in the framework of ideal fluid jets theory using the Kirchhoff scheme and Chaplygin method of singularities, as well as by the numerical method using Flow3d software package, where the system of equations of plane turbulent motion was ended with “standard” k-e model. Results. The flow rates of the air entering through the slots were found, depending on their width and value of the transit flow. Dependencies for the attached flow with and without flow separation are obtained. The shape of the free streamline separating the jet and vortex zones, the compression coefficients of the jet are determined. Current flow lines are constructed for different values of the geometric parameters of the duct and the hole. Conclusion. Analytical and numerical calculations showed that the kinematics of currents and values of the attached flow rate are very similar, but the size and shape of the stagnant zone are significantly different. A numerical solution gives more physics of stagnant zone formation. It was found that flow separation reduces the associated flow rate. It was also found that the intensity of absorption is minimal with the opposite order of cracks.

In ruminants, feeding behaviour variables are parameters involved in feed efficiency that show variation among individuals. This study aimed to evaluate during the first two production cycles in ruminants the repeatability of feed intake pattern, which is an important aspect of feeding behaviour. Thirty-five dairy goats from Alpine or Saanen breeds were housed in individual pens at four periods (end of first gestation, middle of first and second lactations and middle of second gestation which is also the end of first lactation) and fed a total mixed ration (TMR) ad libitum. Individual cumulative dry matter intake (DMI) was automatically measured every 2 min during the last 4 days of each period. Feed intake pattern was characterized by several measures related to the quantity of feed eaten or to the rate of intake during the 15 h following the afternoon feed delivery. Two main methods were used: modelling cumulative DMI evolution by an exponential model or by a segmentation-clustering method. The goat ability to sort against dietary fibre was also evaluated. There was a very good repeatability of the aggregate measures between days within a period for a given goat estimated by the day effect within breed and goat, tested on the residual variance (P > 0.95). The correlations between periods were the highest between the second and either the third or fourth periods. With increasing age, goats sorted more against the fibrous part of the TMR and increased their initial rate of intake. Alpine goats ate more slowly than Saanen goats but ate during a longer duration. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on all the aggregate measures of feed intake patterns. The factor score plots generated by the PCA highlighted the opposition between the different measures of feed intake patterns and the sorting behaviour. The projection of the animals on the scoring plots showed a breed effect and that there was a continuum for the feed intake pattern of goats. In conclusion, this study showed that the feed intake pattern was highly repeatable for an animal in a given period and between periods. This means that phenotyping goats in a younger age might be of interest, either to select them on feeding behaviour and choose preferentially the slow eaters or to adapt the quantity offered and restrict feed delivery to the fast eaters in order to increase feed efficiency and welfare by limiting the occurrence of acidosis, for example.

An understanding of the processes involved in grazing behaviour is a prerequisite for the design of efficient grassland management systems. The purpose of managing the grazing process is to identify sward structures that can maximize animal forage daily intake and optimize grazing time. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of different grazing management strategies on foraging behaviour and herbage intake by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass under rotational stocking. The experiment was carried out in 2015 in southern Brazil. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with two grazing management strategies and four replicates. The grazing management treatments were a traditional rotational stocking (RT), with pre- and post-grazing sward heights of 25 and 5 cm, respectively, and a ‘Rotatinuous’ stocking (RN) with pre- and post-grazing sward heights of 18 and 11 cm, respectively. Male sheep with an average live weight of 32 ± 2.3 kg were used. As intended, the pre- and post-grazing sward heights were according to the treatments. The pre-grazing leaf/stem ratio of the Italian ryegrass pasture did not differ between treatments (P > 0.05) (~2.87), but the post-grazing leaf/stem ratio was greater (P < 0.001) in the RN than in the RT treatment (1.59 and 0.76, respectively). The percentage of the non-grazed area was greater (P < 0.01) in post-grazing for RN compared with RT treatment, with an average of 29.7% and 3.49%, respectively. Herbage nutritive value was greater for the RN than for the RT treatment, with greater CP and lower ADF and NDF contents. The total time spent grazing, ruminating and resting did not differ between treatments (P > 0.05), with averages of 439, 167 and 85 min, respectively. The bite rate, feeding stations per min and steps per min by sheep were greater (P < 0.05) in the RN than in the RT treatment. The grazing time per hour and the bite rate were greater (P < 0.05) in the afternoon than in the morning in both treatments. The daily herbage intake by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass was greater (P < 0.05) in the RN than in the RT treatment (843.7 and 707.8 g organic matter/sheep, respectively). Our study supports the idea that even though the grazing time was not affected by the grazing management strategies when the animal behaviour responses drive management targets, such as in ‘Rotatinuous’ stocking, the sheep herbage intake is maximized, and the grazing time is optimized.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a naturally occurring mycotoxin (fungal toxin) in maize and nuts, causes liver cancer and has been associated with other adverse health effects. Much less is known about the toxicity of its metabolite AFM1, which is secreted in the milk of mammals. Nonetheless, many nations have set regulatory limits for maximum allowable AFM1 in milk and other dairy products. We collected comprehensive data on the occurrence of AFM1 in samples of milk worldwide, encompassing a wide range of different milk types: raw, pasteurized, ultra-high-temperature treated, fresh, and powdered. For each nation, we found average daily milk intake based on national or global dietary surveys. We then used the AFM1 concentration data and intake rates to calculate AFM1 exposure for adults in multiple nations worldwide. Several nations including Pakistan, India, and several sub-Saharan African nations, had AFM1 levels in milk that substantially exceeded United States and European Union regulatory limits for AFM1, indicating potential risk to individuals in those nations with high milk consumption. Because no regulatory agency has set a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for AFM1, we could not compare our exposure estimates to a TDI to determine at-risk populations. But importantly, high AFM1 levels in milk indicate high levels of AFB1 in animal feed. This may imply that the crops used to make that feed such as maize, may have high AFB1 levels, which upon consumption could harm both animal and human health. • Our study estimates occurrence of and human exposure to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) globally. • Most nations in most years have average AFM1 levels in milk that meet EU standards. • Several South Asian and African nations have occasional high AFM1 levels in milk. • These extremely high AFM1 levels in milk indicate highly contaminated animal feed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feeding behavior analysis provides information about the relationships between animals and pastures. Therefore, this review aims to describe some aspects of the feeding behavior profiles of both sheep and goats in grazing systems. The structure of the pasture is a key factor in the feeding behavior of grazing animals. The amount of feed consumed in a given period of time is affected by the number of meals, duration and velocity of swallowing, changes in grazing time, bite rate, bite weight, and quality of ingested forage. The different phenological stages of forage also influence the animals' strategies to optimize their intake, which consequently changes their behavioral activities. Sheep and goats tend to be more selective than cattle, and young animals are more selective than older animals; this selectivity characteristic is one of the most important aspects to be observed in pasture management. According to the degree of selectivity, the animals will intake forages of higher or lower nutritive quality. In addition, the intensity and distribution of their daily activities (grazing, ruminating, and resting) are influenced by several factors, such as the availability and nutritive value of the pasture, its management, the animal activity in the group, and the predominant climatic conditions of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feeding behavior analysis provides information about the relationships between animals and pastures. Therefore, this review aims to describe some aspects of the feeding behavior profiles of both sheep and goats in grazing systems. The structure of the pasture is a key factor in the feeding behavior of grazing animals. The amount of feed consumed in a given period of time is affected by the number of meals, duration and velocity of swallowing, changes in grazing time, bite rate, bite weight, and quality of ingested forage. The different phenological stages of forage also influence the animals’ strategies to optimize their intake, which consequently changes their behavioral activities. Sheep and goats tend to be more selective than cattle, and young animals are more selective than older animals; this selectivity characteristic is one of the most important aspects to be observed in pasture management. According to the degree of selectivity, the animals will intake forages of higher or lower nutritive quality. In addition, the intensity and distribution of their daily activities (grazing, ruminating, and resting) are influenced by several factors, such as the availability and nutritive value of the pasture, its management, the animal activity in the group, and the predominant climatic conditions of the region.

An understanding of the processes involved in grazing behaviour is a prerequisite for the design of efficient grassland management systems. The purpose of managing the grazing process is to identify sward structures that can maximize animal forage daily intake and optimize grazing time. Our aim was to evaluate the effect of different grazing management strategies on foraging behaviour and herbage intake by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass under rotational stocking. The experiment was carried out in 2015 in southern Brazil. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with two grazing management strategies and four replicates. The grazing management treatments were a traditional rotational stocking (RT), with pre- and post-grazing sward heights of 25 and 5 cm, respectively, and a 'Rotatinuous' stocking (RN) with pre- and post-grazing sward heights of 18 and 11 cm, respectively. Male sheep with an average live weight of 32 ± 2.3 kg were used. As intended, the pre- and post-grazing sward heights were according to the treatments. The pre-grazing leaf/stem ratio of the Italian ryegrass pasture did not differ between treatments (P > 0.05) (~2.87), but the post-grazing leaf/stem ratio was greater (P < 0.001) in the RN than in the RT treatment (1.59 and 0.76, respectively). The percentage of the non-grazed area was greater (P < 0.01) in post-grazing for RN compared with RT treatment, with an average of 29.7% and 3.49%, respectively. Herbage nutritive value was greater for the RN than for the RT treatment, with greater CP and lower ADF and NDF contents. The total time spent grazing, ruminating and resting did not differ between treatments (P > 0.05), with averages of 439, 167 and 85 min, respectively. The bite rate, feeding stations per min and steps per min by sheep were greater (P < 0.05) in the RN than in the RT treatment. The grazing time per hour and the bite rate were greater (P < 0.05) in the afternoon than in the morning in both treatments. The daily herbage intake by sheep grazing Italian ryegrass was greater (P < 0.05) in the RN than in the RT treatment (843.7 and 707.8 g organic matter/sheep, respectively). Our study supports the idea that even though the grazing time was not affected by the grazing management strategies when the animal behaviour responses drive management targets, such as in 'Rotatinuous' stocking, the sheep herbage intake is maximized, and the grazing time is optimized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The idea that animals gain a higher food intake rate when foraging in larger groups has been reported in many studies. However, some studies suggested that the number of neighbours under surveillance may play a more important role in affecting food intake rate than flock size. In addition, the effect of the number of neighbours should also depend on the position of an individual within a flock. To test these hypotheses, we examined the effects of flock size, number of neighbours and position within a flock on foraging time, foraging efficiency and intake rate of wintering greater white-fronted geese, Anser albifrons. We observed the foraging behaviours of 490 individual geese from 71 flocks during December 2016–March 2017 at Shengjin Lake, Anhui, China. We found that mean foraging time, foraging efficiency and intake rate were not influenced by flock size, whereas, at the individual scale these variables were significantly affected by the number of neighbours and position within a flock. Moreover, the effect of the number of neighbours on the foraging parameters did not differ between central and peripheral individuals, despite central individuals always having greater foraging time, foraging efficiency and intake rate regardless of the number of neighbours. Both the decreased foraging time and decreased foraging efficiency indicated a potential increase in cryptic competition from neighbours. More neighbours contributed to a decreased intake rate. Our study highlights the possible effects of cryptic competition among neighbours on their foraging behaviour. We hypothesize that an increase in intraspecific competition between neighbours in areas of shrinking wetland habitats may contribute to population declines of wintering geese and other wildfowl. • More neighbours lead to decreased foraging time and foraging efficiency. • Cryptic competition among neighbours reduces individuals' intake rate. • Number of neighbours is more important in affecting intake rate than flock size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ruminants, feeding behaviour variables are parameters involved in feed efficiency that show variation among individuals. This study aimed to evaluate during the first two production cycles in ruminants the repeatability of feed intake pattern, which is an important aspect of feeding behaviour. Thirty-five dairy goats from Alpine or Saanen breeds were housed in individual pens at four periods (end of first gestation, middle of first and second lactations and middle of second gestation which is also the end of first lactation) and fed a total mixed ration (TMR) ad libitum. Individual cumulative dry matter intake (DMI) was automatically measured every 2 min during the last 4 days of each period. Feed intake pattern was characterized by several measures related to the quantity of feed eaten or to the rate of intake during the 15 h following the afternoon feed delivery. Two main methods were used: modelling cumulative DMI evolution by an exponential model or by a segmentation-clustering method. The goat ability to sort against dietary fibre was also evaluated. There was a very good repeatability of the aggregate measures between days within a period for a given goat estimated by the day effect within breed and goat, tested on the residual variance (P > 0.95). The correlations between periods were the highest between the second and either the third or fourth periods. With increasing age, goats sorted more against the fibrous part of the TMR and increased their initial rate of intake. Alpine goats ate more slowly than Saanen goats but ate during a longer duration. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on all the aggregate measures of feed intake patterns. The factor score plots generated by the PCA highlighted the opposition between the different measures of feed intake patterns and the sorting behaviour. The projection of the animals on the scoring plots showed a breed effect and that there was a continuum for the feed intake pattern of goats. In conclusion, this study showed that the feed intake pattern was highly repeatable for an animal in a given period and between periods. This means that phenotyping goats in a younger age might be of interest, either to select them on feeding behaviour and choose preferentially the slow eaters or to adapt the quantity offered and restrict feed delivery to the fast eaters in order to increase feed efficiency and welfare by limiting the occurrence of acidosis, for example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foraging by animals is hypothesized to be state-dependent, that is, varying with physiological condition of individuals. State often is defined by energy reserves, but state also can reflect differences in nutritional requirements (e.g., for reproduction, lactation, growth, etc.). Testing hypotheses about state-dependent foraging in ungulates is difficult because fine-scale data needed to evaluate these hypotheses generally are lacking. To evaluate whether foraging by caribou (Rangifer tarandus) was state-dependent, we compared bite and intake rates, travel rates, dietary quality, forage selection, daily foraging time, and foraging strategies of caribou with three levels of nutritional requirements (lactating adults, nonlactating adults, subadults 1–2 years old). Only daily foraging times and daily nutrient intakes differed among nutritional classes of caribou. Lactating caribou foraged longer per day than nonlactating caribou—a difference that was greatest at the highest rates of intake, but which persisted even when intake was below requirements. Further, at sites where caribou achieved high rates of intake, caribou in each nutritional class continued foraging even after satisfying daily nutritional requirements, which was consistent with a foraging strategy to maximize energy intake. Foraging time by caribou was partially state-dependent, highlighting the importance of accounting for physiological state in studies of animal behavior. Fine-scale foraging behaviors may influence larger-scale behavioral strategies, with potential implications for conservation and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to evaluate the forage-intake process of goats feeding on Massai grass pastures with different heights (40, 50, 60, and 70 cm). The experimental design was completely randomized, with treatments corresponding to four sward heights with two replicates over time and space. Collected data were related to the forage-intake process and the chemical and morphological composition of the pasture. Grazing trials (45 min) were performed with four Anglo-Nubian crossbred goats. Total forage mass intake, bite mass, and intake rate were expressed in relation to animal weight. Pasture density, forage mass, and leaf blade increased as forage height increased. The chemical composition of forage at the evaluated heights was similar, except for reduced crude protein content at 70-cm height. Bite rate, intake rate, and time per bite had a quadratic relationship with increasing sward height. The greatest intake rate was observed at 54.7 cm of height, with 0.136 g DM min-1 kg-1 LW. Bite rate exhibited a linear and positive correlation with increase in intake. At the 50-cm height, goats harvested a mass of 3.65 g DM bite-1 kg-1 LW, when they performed 34.5 bites per minute. Adult goats had a greater forage intake on 50-cm high Massai grass pastures because they could obtain a greater bite mass in a shorter time per bite.

Nine lactating cows fed a total mixed ration (TMR) were assigned to three 3 × 3 Latin squares with 20-day periods to evaluate the effects of access time to fresh forage (FF) on behaviour and dry matter intake rate (DMIR). Forage (Lolium multiflorum) was cut daily and individually offered from 0800 h for 0 (T0), 4 (T4) or 8 (T8) hours of daily access, and a TMR was offered during the remaining time. Treatments had no effect on the average proportion of time spent eating or ruminating. However, the distribution of behaviours across time was different among treatments, with T4 and T8 cows spending a high proportion of the available time eating and achieving a high DMIR only when they had access to TMR. Additional research is warranted to identify strategies that increase the DMIR of TMR-fed cows when FF is progressively included in their diet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of forage legumes has been proposed as a means of generating sustainable grazing environments. Their limited use, particularly in tropical pastures, is partially due to the limited knowledge regarding the efficiency of utilization by animals. The present study characterized the sward structure, nutritive value and ingestive behaviour of dairy heifers in pastures of peanut cv. Belmonte under continuous stocking management. Treatments corresponded to sward heights of 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm, according to a randomized complete block design, with four replications. The following response variables were evaluated: vertical distribution of the morphological components within the sward, forage mass, nutritive value (simulated grazing), bite rate (BR), bite mass (BM) and short-term herbage intake rate (STIR). The top half of the sward height was mainly composed of leaves and the bottom half mainly of stolon and dead material regardless of management height. Greater values of neutral detergent fibre and acid detergent fibre were recorded during autumn, while higher values of in-vitro dry matter (DM) digestibility (0·85) occurred during spring regardless of management height for the grazed stratum. In relation to treatments, greater values of crude protein were recorded on swards managed at 5 cm (0·27) and 10 cm (0·26). Bite rate, BM and STIR varied with sward height, but not with a season of the year. The STIR followed a broken line response to sward height, with increasing values up to 13·1 cm (106 g DM/kg body weight). Sward structure played an important role in determining the STIR. To maximize the STIR of dairy heifers under continuous stocking management, swards should be managed at heights of not <13·1 cm. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito da estrutura de uma pastagem nativa nos parâmetros que compõem o processo de ingestão de forragem de ovelhas e bezerras em pastejo, foram estabelecidas quatro alturas de pasto (4, 8, 12 e 16 cm), em delineamento estatístico inteiramente casualizado, com quatro tratamentos e duas repetições no tempo e no espaço. A massa do bocado e a taxa de ingestão foram estimados por diferença de peso vivo corrigido para a perda de peso metabólico, durante 45 minutos. Os movimentos mandibulares de apreensão e mastigação foram registrados pelo aparelho IGER Behaviour Recorder. A profundidade do bocado foi obtida em 40 perfilhos marcados por unidade experimental, em medições realizadas antes e após o pastejo. Observou-se correlação positiva entre a altura do pasto e a massa de forragem, e negativa com a densidade de forragem. A profundidade de bocados apresentou relação linear e positiva com o aumento da altura do pasto e não diferiu entre espécies animais. Acima de 9,5 cm de altura do pasto, a profundidade do bocado das ovelhas não compensou a pouca densidade de forragem nos estratos mais superiores, o que reduziu a massa do bocado. A mesma resposta foi observada a partir da altura do pasto de 11,4 cm para as bezerras. Com o aumento da massa do bocado, houve diminuição na taxa de bocados e aumento na taxa de mastigação. A taxa de ingestão foi maior nas alturas em que a massa de bocados foi também superior, o que evidencia a correlação positiva entre as duas variáveis. Nessas condições, para aumentar o consumo de ovelhas e bezerras em campo nativo, a estrutura ideal de manejo requer manutenção de altura do pasto entre 9,5 e 11,4 cm, respectivamente.Aiming to evaluate the influence of native pasture structure in the intake process of grazing ewes and calves, four sward heights (4, 8, 12 and 16 cm) were established. A completely randomized design with four treatments and two replicates in time and space was used. Bite mass and forage intake were estimated by the short-term weight changes technique, corrected for the rate of insensible weight loss, during a 45 minutes test. The grazing and mastication jaw movements were registered by the IGER Behaviour Recorder device. Bite depth was obtained through 40 tillers marked in each experimental unit, by measurements carried before and after grazing. A positive correlation was observed between sward height and herbage mass, and negative between sward height and herbage bulk density. Bite depth fitted positively and linearly with increasing sward height, being not different between animal species. Ewe bite mass increased with increasing sward height up to 9.5 cm, then decreasing due to the low bulk density in the superior stratum. The same response was observed with calves, but bite mass reached a plateau only at 11.4 cm sward height. Bite rate decreased and mastication rate increased with increasing bite mass. Intake rate was greater at the sward height in which bite mass was also superior, indicating the positive correlation between these two variables. Under those conditions, to optimize the intake of sheep and calves, in native pasture, the ideal structure for management requires the maintenance of sward heights between 9.5 and 11.4 cm.

Intake rates by large herbivores are governed by among other things plant traits. We used Masai giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi Matschie) as study animals, testing whether they as very large browsers would follow the Jarman–Bell principle and maximize intake rate while tolerating low forage quality. We worked in Arusha National Park, Tanzania. We investigated how intake rate was determined by bite mass and bite rate, and show that bite mass and bite rate were determined by plant characteristics, governed by inherent plant traits, plant traits acquired from previous years’ browsing, and season. We predicted that; (1) bite mass would be larger in trees without spines than with (2) bite mass would be larger in the wet season than in the dry, (3) bite rate would be higher in spinescent trees than in non-spinescent, (4) bite rate and/or bite mass would increase with previous years’ browsing, (5) bite mass, bite rate or browsing time per tree would be highest for high trees with large, although still available canopies. Visual observations were used to collect data on tree attributes, number of bites taken and time of browsing. Sample size was 132 observed giraffe. We found that bite mass was larger in spineless than in spinescent trees and was larger in the wet season than in the dry. Bite rate, but not bite mass, increased with increasing browsing in previous years and was highest on two to three meter high trees and in spinescent trees. Intake rate followed bite mass more than bite rate and was higher in spineless than in spinescent trees, higher in the wet season than in the dry, and tended to increase with tree height. Giraffe did not prioritize the highest intake rate, but browsed much on Acacias giving a high quality diet but a low intake rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liquid sugar baits are well accepted by the Argentine ant Linepithema humile and are suitable for the chemical control of this invasive species. We evaluated how sugar concentrations affect the foraging behavior of L. humile individuals. We quantified feeding variables for individual foragers (ingested load, feeding time and solution intake rate) when feeding on sucrose solutions of different concentrations, as well as post-feeding interactions with nestmates. Solutions of intermediate sucrose concentrations (10–30%) were the most consumed and had the highest intake rates, whereas solutions of high sucrose concentrations (60 and 70%) resulted in extended feeding times, low intake rates and ants having smaller crop loads. In terms of post-feeding interactions, individuals fed solutions of intermediate sucrose concentrations (20%) had the highest probability of conducting trophallaxis and the smallest latency to drop exposure (i.e. lowest time delay). Trophallaxis duration increased with increasing sucrose concentrations. Behavioral motor displays, including contacts with head jerking and walking with a gaster waggle, were lowest for individuals that ingested the more dilute sucrose solution (5%). These behaviors have been previously suggested to act as a communication channel for the activation and/or recruitment of nestmates. We show here that sucrose concentration affects feeding dynamics and modulates decision making related to individual behavior and social interactions of foragers. Our results indicate that intermediate sucrose concentrations (ca. 20%), appear to be most appropriate for toxic baits because they promote rapid foraging cycles, a high crop load per individual, and a high degree of stimulation for recruitment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When prey are time limited in their access to food, any trade-off involving time should ultimately affect their intake rate. In many herbivores, males and females experience different ecological pressures affecting their survival and reproduction because of differences in morphology, physiology and energy/nutrient requirements. If males and females have different vigilance strategies that affect their intake rates differently, they will suffer different foraging costs. This is particularly relevant in sexually monomorphic herbivores, where the two sexes have similar basal energy/nutrient requirements and risk of predation. We investigated how gender, reproductive status, age, group size, predation risk, and food biomass affected vigilance, intake rate, and their trade-off in a monomorphic species, the plains zebra ( Equus quagga). Males were more vigilant than females, and lactating females were less vigilant than other females; the levels of vigilance were low (ca. 10 % of feeding time). The effects on time spent feeding, bite rates and intake rates were small and statistically not significant. Reproductive status did not affect the strength of the relationship between vigilance and intake rate, but intake rates increased with group size and, for adult females, were higher in tall grass. While gender and reproductive status were major drivers of vigilance, and group size and food biomass of the rate of food intake, males and females adjust their bite rates and food intake with vigilance in similar ways. Our results support the hypothesis that in monomorphic animals, males and females seem to make similar trade-offs (i.e. adjustments) between vigilance and intake rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to understand the benefit of diet mixing for Creole goats grazing native forage species in the central Monte desert of Argentina and the drivers of preference in the mixed diet. To achieve this goal, cafeteria-style experiments were conducted with thirty female Creole goats (2 years old; 44 ± 1.4 kg) and forage species that are typically ingested by goats in this region: Two tanniniferous ( Tricomaria usillo , Mimosa ephedroides ) and three non-tanniniferous shrubs ( Prosopis flexuosa , Capparis atamisquea, Atriplex lampa ). In Experiment 1, goats were assigned to three groups ( n = 10); two groups were offered single tannin-containing shrubs as their basal diet ( T. usillo ; SDTU or M. ephedroides , SDME), whereas the third group received a combination of all five forages (Mixed diet of forages, MD). After a fifteen-day adaptation period, half the animals in each group ( n = 5) were dosed with polyethylene glycol (PEG), a polymer that neutralizes the negative effects of tannins, whereas the other half (Control) were not dosed (CG). Daily dry matter intake (DMI), in vivo apparent digestibility of the diet (ADD) and nitrogen (ADN) were determined. For goats fed MD, preference was estimated based on the DMI of each of the forages offered. Jugular blood samples were collected on the first and last days of the experiment to determine concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum metabolites indicative of liver damage. In experiment 2, intake rates (IR) of the five forage species were estimated. No significant differences in DMI were detected among treatments. However, goats offered a choice of forages (MD) in the CG treatment had greater diet digestibility and lower BUN than animals fed the single shrubs, showing evidence of a nutritional benefit with dietary diversity. Goats changed their foraging preferences in response to PEG supplementation. Animals in the CG treatment preferred M. ephedroides whereas animals in the PEGG treatment preferred A. lampa. There was a positive correlation between forage preference and IR of crude protein ( r = 0.65; P < 0.001) in PEGG goats, and between forage preference and IR of total tannins ( r = 0.77, P < 0.001) in CG goats. When PEG attenuated biological effects of condensed tannins, goats switched their preference from forages that offered the greatest IR of total tannins (i.e., M. ephedroides ) to those that led to the greatest IR of crude protein (i.e., A. lampa ). In summary, a mixed diet led to greater nutritional benefits than single diets, which contribute to explain the diverse array of food items goats typically show when browsing in the central Monte desert of Argentina. Our results also show that CP, tannins and plant structure (which offer variable intake rates) play significant roles in goats’ foraging preferences in this environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outside the breeding season, most shorebirds use either estuarine or non-estuarine intertidal areas as foraging grounds. The sanderling Calidris alba is mostly associated with coastal sandy beaches, a habitat which is currently at risk worldwide due to increasing coastal erosion, but may also use estuarine sites as alternative foraging areas. We aimed to compare the trophic conditions for sanderlings wintering in estuarine and non-estuarine sites within and around the Tejo estuary, Portugal, where these two alternative wintering options are available within a relatively small spatial scale. To achieve this, we analysed sanderling diet, prey availability, foraging behaviour, and time and energy budgets in the different substrates available in estuarine and non-estuarine sites. In terms of biomass, the most important sanderling prey in the estuarine sites were siphons of the bivalve Scrobicularia plana , polychaetes, staphylinids and the gastropod Hydrobia ulvae . In non-estuarine sites the main prey were polychaetes, the bivalve Donax trunculus and chironomid larvae. Both food availability and energetic intake rates were higher on estuarine sites, and sanderlings spent a higher proportion of time foraging on non-estuarine sites. In the estuary, sanderlings foraged in muddy-sand substrate whenever it was available, achieving higher intake rates than in sandy substrates. In the non-estuarine sites they used both sandy and rocky substrates throughout the tidal cycle but had higher intakes rates in sandy substrate. Estuarine sites seem to offer better foraging conditions for wintering sanderlings than non-estuarine sites. However, sanderlings only use muddy-sand and sandy substrates, which represent a small proportion of the intertidal area of the estuary. The extent of these substrates and the current sanderling density in the estuary suggest it is unlikely that the estuary could provide alternative wintering habitat for sanderlings if they face habitat loss and degradation in coastal sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

O infiltrômetro de anéis concêntricos (IAC) tem sido empregado para a determinação da velocidade de infiltração básica de água no solo (VIB), porém, para sistemas de irrigação por aspersão, a melhor técnica é a que apresenta carga hidráulica zero, como nos simuladores de chuva. O presente trabalho teve o objetivo de avaliar o uso de infiltrômetro de cilindro único (ICU), comparando-o com o IAC e com um simulador de chuva. O experimento foi realizado em dois tipos de solo classificados como Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico e Cambissolo, onde se utilizou um ICU com 0,20 m de diâmetro e 0,50 m de altura. As cargas hidráulicas utilizadas variaram de 0,03 m a 0,30 m com intervalos crescentes de 0,03 m, com três repetições. Utilizou-se de um IAC de 0,30 e 0,90 m de diâmetro, com três repetições, nas cargas hidráulicas mais utilizadas no campo, 0,05 m e 0,10 m. O simulador de chuva utilizado teve área útil de 1,0 m² com dois difusores. Com o aumento da carga hidráulica para o ICU, o fluxo de entrada de água no solo aumentou de forma polinomial para os dois solos. Para o IAC, a VIB pode ser subestimada ou superestimada, dependendo do solo e da carga hidráulica. Pode-se estimar a VIB, para uma carga hidráulica zero, utilizando-se de um ICU na carga desejada, desde que se aplique o fator de correção inerente de cada tipo de solo.Infiltrometer ring (IAC) has been the most used way for the soil intake rate determination, although the best result comes from the technique using no pressure head, like in rainfall simulator, for application in sprinkler irrigation. The objective of this work was the evaluation of a single ring infiltrometer (ICU) comparing its data with those from an IAC and rainfall simulator. The evaluation was done in two types of soils, Dystrophic Dusky Red Latosol and Cambisol, using an ICU with diameter of 0.20 m and 0.50 m high, with hydraulic heads varying from 0.03 m to 0.30 m with intervals of 0.03 m and three repetitions. It was used, for comparison, an IAC with diameters of 0.30 m and 0.90 m, with three replications and hydraulic heads of 0.05 m and 0.10 m. The rainfall simulator utilized had an area of 1.0 m² with two sprinklers. It was observed that, the elevation of hydraulic head in the ICU promoted an increase in the water flow into the soil, in a polynomial model, for both soils. The IAC may underestimate or upperestimate the real values of final intake rate, depending on the soil and the hydraulic head. The soil water intake rate can be estimate, with no pressure head, using an ICU with a desired pressure since a correction factor is applied according to the soil type.