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An approximately 30-year-old intact female Asiatic black bear ( Ursus thibetanus) was presented for annual examination and a history of ptyalism. A large 9.5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm, firm, round mass was identified attached to the hard palate on physical examination. A computed tomography scan was performed, and the heterogeneous, mineral-attenuating mass was seen arising from the right aspect of the palatine bone and extending rostrally to the level of the last maxillary molars, caudally into the oropharynx, and dorsally into the nasal choana. Surgical debulking was performed to remove the portion of the mass within the oral cavity. Histopathologic analysis was consistent with a keratinizing ameloblastoma. Nine months postoperatively, the patient was asymptomatic for the tumor. The patient was euthanized 23-months postoperatively, and severe diffuse pustular dermatitis, growth of the ameloblastoma on the hard palate, and various degenerative and aging changes were noted on necropsy at that time. This is the first report of an ameloblastoma in a member of the Ursidae family.

This study was conducted to assess the cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of sevoflurane anesthesia on Garnett's Greater Bush Baby (Otolemur garnettii). Anesthesia was induced via face mask in 10 animals, six male and four female, ranging in age from 2 to 8 years (mean weight 1.02 kg), with 8% sevoflurane in oxygen at 2 L minute−1. Animals were then intubated and maintained on a nonrebreathing system at 2.5% end tidal sevoflurane at 2 L minute−1 oxygen for 30 minutes. Induction (time to recumbency and lack of voluntary movement) and recovery time (time from discontinuation of sevoflurane to extubation) were recorded. Heart rate, respiratory rate (RR), end-tidal CO2 concentration (ETCO2), temperature (T) and oxygen retardation by pulse oximetry (SpO2) were monitored every minute for 5 minutes and then every 5 minutes thereafter. Indirect arterial blood pressures were monitored at 4 and 5 minutes and then every 5 minutes until the end of the study. PaO2 and PaCO2 values were recorded at 10 and 30 minutes. Pre (1 week prior) and post study CBC and serum biochemistry results were also compared. Statistical analysis was determined by anova. Results were considered significant at p ≤ 0.05. Induction was rapid (76 ± 9 seconds) (mean ± SEM) and smooth. Heart rate showed a significant increase during the first three minutes, and then significantly decreased over the remaining 30 minutes. There were no significant changes to RR, SpO2, ETCO2, SAP, MAP and DAP during the 30 minutes of anesthesia. PaO2 significantly increased from the 10 minute (326 ± 51 mm Hg, 43.4 ± 6.8 kPa) to the 30 minute (431 ± 48 mm Hg, 57.5 ± 6.4 kPa) sample and PaCO2 values remained similar between the 10 minute (36 ± 2 mm Hg, 4.8 ± 0.3 kPa) and 30 minute (33 ± 2 mm Hg, 4.4 ± 0.3 kPa) samples. CBC and serum biochemistry results were within normal limits for both samplings, however, a significant decrease was noted in the WBC count, Ca, and TP compared to prestudy results. Recovery was smooth and rapid with extubation occurring at 24 ± 6 seconds after discontinuation of sevoflurane. At the concentration used in this study sevoflurane appears to be a safe and effective agent for induction and maintenance of anesthesia in O. garnettii.

The sedative effects of intranasal midazolam and dexmedetomidine were evaluated in 2 tortoise species as a means to facilitate handling and performing diagnostic procedures. Six red-footed tortoises ( Chelonoidis carbonaria ) and 6 Indian star tortoises ( Geochelone platynota ) received the following treatments in a randomized order with 2-week washout periods between the treatments: midazolam (0.5 and 1.5mg/kg), dexmedetomidine (0.05 and 0.15mg/kg), and saline control. Tortoises were evaluated and scored for sedation (using a previously published subjective method) by blinded observers, and results were averaged for each species and treatment group. Low-dose dexmedetomidine (0.05mg/kg) in red-footed tortoises resulted in a significantly higher median sedation score at 5 minutes compared with other treatments. Control saline resulted in a higher median sedation score 5 minutes after administration in Indian star tortoises compared with red-footed tortoises. No other significant differences were observed between treatments or between species. The results suggest that intranasal administration of midazolam or dexmedetomidine, at the dosages used in this study, do not provide effective sedation in red-footed tortoises or Indian star tortoises, based on a subjective scoring system.

A 16-year-old female umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba) was presented for a fluctuant, right-sided cervical mass that extended from the caudolateral edge of the right mandible to the coelomic inlet. Results of initial diagnostic tests were consistent with a cystic mass containing hemorrhage. Surgical exploration and removal of the mass was done, but because the hyoid apparatus was incorporated in the base of the cyst, complete surgical excision was not possible. Histopathologic results were consistent with a branchial cyst with carcinoma. Five months after surgery, the cockatoo exhibited intermittent periorbital swelling and epistaxis, and cytologic results of a fluid aspirate from the right infraorbital sinus were consistent with carcinoma. Results of magnetic resonance imaging revealed extensive abnormal T2 and short-tau inversion-recovery hyperintense tissue associated with the right side of the head and neck, infiltrating between muscle planes and extending into the right retro-orbital tissue and nasal cavity. At 7 months after surgery, the bird was severely dyspneic and was euthanatized. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the diagnosis, management, and histologic characteristics associated with a branchial cyst with carcinoma in an animal.

Cefovecin was administered to six healthy adult white bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) and six healthy adult Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) to determine its pharmacokinetics in these species. A single dose of cefovecin at 8 mg/kg was administered subcutaneously in the epaxial region of the bamboo sharks and in the proximal articulation of the lateral leg of the horseshoe crabs. Blood and hemolymph samples were collected at various time points from bamboo sharks and Atlantic horseshoe crabs. High performance liquid chromatography was performed to determine plasma levels of cefovecin. The terminal half-life of cefovecin in Atlantic horseshoe crabs was 37.70 ± 9.04 hr and in white bamboo sharks was 2.02 ± 4.62 hr. Cefovecin concentrations were detected for 4 days in white bamboo sharks and for 14 days in Atlantic horseshoe crabs. No adverse effects associated with cefovecin administration were seen in either species.

A simple high-performance liquid chromatography method for the determination of cefovecin in small volume plasma has been developed. Following solid-phase extraction using Oasis HLB cartridges, samples were separated by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography on an XBridge C8 (3.5 µm) 4.6 × 250 mm column and quantified using ultraviolet detection at 280 nm. The mobile phase was a mixture of 10 mm ammonium acetate (pH 3.5) and acetonitrile (89:11), with a flow rate of 0.85 mL/min. The standard curve ranged from 0.1 to 200 µg/mL. Intra- and Inter-assay variability for cefovecin was 90%. The lower limit of quantitation was 0.1 µg/mL. This method was successfully applied to the analysis of cefovecin samples at our institution. This is also the first fully validated method with an internal standard that does not use mass spectrometry. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A 15-yr-old female Madagascar ground boa (Boa madagascariensis) presented with a history of anorexia, wheezing, and occasional open-mouth breathing. On oral examination, a firm, caseous mass was noted in the right caudoventral pharyngeal region, which was confirmed as a carcinoma on incisional biopsy. Advanced imaging (computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) was performed to evaluate local tumor invasion and to plan for palliative radiation therapy. However, following the second treatment (10 Gy), the mass had increased in size, and the snake was euthanatized. Radiation-associated vasculitis was noted within the soft tissues surrounding the mass and within muscles and the lung, which was verified on histopathology. The squamous cell carcinoma of the snake in this report was resistant to palliative radiation therapy.

Objective—To evaluate first-intention healing of CO2 laser, 4.0-MHz radiowave radiosurgery (RWRS), and scalpel incisions in ball pythons (Python regius). Animals—6 healthy adult ball pythons. Procedures—A skin biopsy sample was collected, and 2-cm skin incisions (4/modality) were made in each snake under anesthesia and closed with surgical staples on day 0. Incision sites were grossly evaluated and scored daily. One skin biopsy sample per incision type per snake was obtained on days 2, 7, 14, and 30. Necrotic and fibroplastic tissue was measured in histologic sections; samples were assessed and scored for total inflammation, histologic response (based on the measurement of necrotic and fibroplastic tissues and total inflammation score), and other variables. Frequency distributions of gross and histologic variables associated with wound healing were calculated. Results—Gross wound scores were significantly greater (indicating greater separation of wound edges) for laser incisions than for RWRS and scalpel incisions at all evaluated time points. Necrosis was significantly greater in laser and RWRS incisions than in scalpel incision sites on days 2 and 14 and days 2 and 7, respectively; fibroplasia was significantly greater in laser than in scalpel incision sites on day 30. Histologic response scores were significantly lower for scalpel than for other incision modalities on days 2, 14, and 30. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—In snakes, skin incisions made with a scalpel generally had less necrotic tissue than did CO2 laser and RWRS incisions. Comparison of the 3 modalities on the basis of histologic response scores indicated that use of a scalpel was preferable, followed by RWRS and then laser.

An 8-yr-old intact female African lion (Panthera leo) presented with a 3-day history of lethargy, anorexia, and vomiting. Hematologic and biochemical abnormalities included a leukocytosis, 41,700/microl (4,700-15,300) with a neutrophilia (37,530/microl; 2,000-9,200) and a left shift (1,250/microl bands; 0-300), and mild hypokalemia of 2.1 mEq/L (2.8-4.8). Abdominal radiographs revealed evidence of intestinal ileus, peritonitis, and the presence of effusion. An exploratory laparotomy was performed, and septic peritonitis due to a pyometra was diagnosed. The lion was treated with an ovariohysterectomy, abdominal lavage, fluid therapy, and a subcutaneous injection of cefovecin. The lion recovered, and clinical signs associated with septic peritonitis resolved within 36 hr. It was returned to conspecifics 3 wk later. Three months postoperatively, the lion showed no residual signs of septic peritonitis.

Noninfectious and infectious causes have been implicated in the development of respiratory tract disease in reptiles. Treatment modalities in reptiles have to account for species differences in response to therapeutic agents as well as interpretation of diagnostic findings. Data on effective drugs and dosages for the treatment of respiratory diseases are often lacking in reptiles. Recently, advances have been made on the application of advanced imaging modalities, especially computed tomography for the diagnosis and treatment monitoring of reptiles. This article describes common infectious and noninfectious causes of respiratory disease in reptiles, including diagnostic and therapeutic regimen.

Background: Advantages of handheld and small bench-top biochemical analyzers include requirements for smaller sample volume and practicality for use in the field or in practices, but little has been published on the performance of these instruments compared with standard reference methods in analysis of reptilian blood. Objective: The aim of this study was to compare reptilian blood biochemical values obtained using the Abaxis VetScan Classic bench-top analyzer and a Heska i-STAT handheld analyzer with values obtained using a Roche Hitachi 911 chemical analyzer. Methods: Reptiles, including 14 bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), 4 blue-tongued skinks (Tiliqua gigas), 8 Burmese star tortoises (Geochelone platynota), 10 Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans), 5 red-tailed boas (Boa constrictor), and 5 Northern pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus melanoleucus), were manually restrained, and a single blood sample was obtained and divided for analysis. Results for concentrations of albumin, bile acids, calcium, glucose, phosphates, potassium, sodium, total protein, and uric acid and activities of aspartate aminotransferase and creatine kinase obtained from the VetScan Classic and Hitachi 911 were compared. Results for concentrations of chloride, glucose, potassium, and sodium obtained from the i-STAT and Hitachi 911 were compared. Results: Compared with results from the Hitachi 911, those from the VetScan Classic and i-STAT had variable correlations, and constant or proportional bias was found for many analytes. Bile acid data could not be evaluated because results for 44 of 45 samples fell below the lower linearity limit of the VetScan Classic. Conclusions: Although the 2 portable instruments might provide measurements with clinical utility, there were significant differences compared with the reference analyzer, and development of analyzer-specific reference intervals is recommended.

A 13-mo-old intact male African lion (Panthera leo) presented with a 3-mo history of lethargy, ventral flexion of the neck, abnormal vocalization, and ataxia. Hemogram and serum biochemistries were within normal limits except for the presence of hypokalemia (2.7 mEq/L) and hypochloridemia (108 mEq/L). When no improvement was noted with oral potassium gluconate supplementation, a computed tomography scan of the brain and skull was performed, and no abnormalities were noted. However, magnetic resonance imaging detected occipital bone thickening, crowding of the caudal cranial fossa with cerebellar compression and herniation, and cervical syringohydromyelia, which was consistent with a Chiari I-like malformation. Foramen magnum decompression was performed to relieve the compression of the cerebellum. The animal recovered well with subsequent resolution of clinical signs. Hypovitaminosis A has been proposed previously as the underlying etiology for this malformation in lions with similar clinical presentations. This lion's serum and liver vitamin A concentrations were low (100 ng/ml and 25.31 microg/g, respectively) compared to concentrations reported for domestic carnivores and support hypovitaminosis A as the underlying cause of this animal's Chiari I-like malformation.

A 3-yr-old male captive bobcat (Lynx rufus) presented with chronic ataxia and right-sided head tilt. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed cerebellar crowding and compression consistent with Chiari-like malformation. The clinical signs did not improve after surgical occipital craniectomy, and 2 mo postoperatively a second MRI showed hydromyelia and continued cerebellar compression. The bobcat was euthanized, and necropsy showed chronic focal cerebellar herniation and chronic multifocal atlanto-occipital joint osteophyte proliferation. Histology confirmed the presence of a thick fibrous membrane along the caudal aspect of the cerebellar vermis, suggestive of postoperative adhesions, and axonal degeneration of the cervical spinal cord, even in sections without a central canal lesion. These lesions appear to have been complications associated with surgical correction of the Chiari-like malformation.

The American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus), a marine member of the Phylum Arthropoda is a popular hands-on exhibit animal in aquariums and zoological parks. At Ripley s Aquarium of the Smokies, white, proliferative, irregularly expansile lesions were observed on the soft tissue of the gills and the joint spaces of the legs and tails of crabs kept in a hands-on tank. Additionally, 1–2 mm diameter, circular, discolored red-brown, ulcerated lesions of the ventral carapace were recognized. A fungal etiology of the lesions was determined by cytology and histopathology. Itraconazole is a triazole anti-fungal agent and is widely used in human and veterinary medicine for the treatment of fungal infections. Pharmacokinetic studies are scarce for invertebrates (Gore et al., 2005), and those involving anti-fungal agents are lacking. This study was designed to determine the pharmacokinetics of itraconazole for the treatment of susceptible fungal infections in American horseshoe crabs. The study group consisted of 10 horseshoe crabs (six males and four females) equally divided into two 150 gallon recirculating tanks. Water quality parameters were assessed regularly, including temperature (23–25 C), pH (7.77–8.31), salinity (33–38 ppt), total ammonia ⁄NH3 ⁄NH4 -N (0.0 mg ⁄L), nitrite (0.02–0.05 ppm), nitrate (98–104 ppm), dissolved oxygen saturation (71–97.8%), dissolved oxygen (4.0–6.2 ppm), copper (0.003–0.009 ppm), and alkalinity ⁄CaCO3 (290–400 ppm). Sample collection and drug administration were performed through the cardiac sinus with the animal restrained in ventral flexion (Smith, 2006). A pilot study was conducted in one animal to establish a dose and sampling interval for itraconazole. The animal was given 5 mg ⁄kg i.v. itraconazole (Sporanox; Ortho Biotech, L.P., Raritan, NJ, USA) diluted with 0.9% sodium chloride to a concentration of 3.33 mg ⁄mL per manufacturer s instructions. This mixture was further diluted to 2 mg ⁄mL with 0.9% sodium chloride (Hospira, Lake Forest, IL, USA) to attain a pH of 6.60 as determined by Beckman F pH meter (Beckman Instruments, Inc., Irvine, CA, USA). Hemolymph was collected in a 3-mL syringe with a 22-guage needle at 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h following itraconazole administration. The sample volume was 0.3 mL for a total of 3.3 mL hemolymph collected over the sampling period. Hemolymph was placed immediately in a lithium heparin microtainer (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA), centrifuged, and the hemolymph supernatant was placed in a cryovial and stored at )80 C until analysis. Based on the results from the pilot study, a dose of 10 mg ⁄kg was established for the full study. Procedures for itraconazole preparation, sample collection and handling were identical to those used in the pilot study. One untreated animal in the tank served as a negative control to assess the redistribution of itraconazole circulating in the water. Analyses for itraconazole, and its active metabolite, hydroxyitraconazole were performed using a modified HPLC method as previously described (Cox et al., 1997). Hemolymph samples were analyzed by reverse phase HPLC with fluorescence detection. The HPLC system consisted of a 2996 separations module, a 2475 fluorescence detector and a computer equipped with EMPOWER software (Waters, Milford, MA, USA). Standard curves for hemolymph analysis were prepared by fortifying untreated hemolymph with itraconazole and hydroxyitraconazole to produce a linear concentration range of 10– 5000 ng ⁄mL. The intra-assay variability for itraconazole ranged from 0.6% to 1.8% and 0.9% to 4.2% for the hydroxy metabolite. Inter-assay variability ranged from 0.5% to 10% for itraconazole and 1.8% to 9.2% for the hydroxy metabolite. Recovery ranged from 86% to 93% for itraconazole and 79% to 90% for hydroxyitraconazole. Analysis of concentration–time data and estimation of pharmacokinetic parameter values for itraconazole and its metabolite J. vet. Pharmacol. Therap. 31, 83–86, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.2007.00924.x. SHORT COMMUNICATION

The risk of accidental envenomation to the handler of venomous snakes during drug administration limits the ability to treat these animals. One commercially available osmotic pump is a miniature self-contained cylindrical implant that operates on the basis of an osmotic pressure difference between the extracellular fluid and the osmotic agent in the pump. Osmotic pumps loaded with amikacin were surgically placed into the coelomic cavity of five adult corn snakes (Elaphe guttata guttata) (group A). Four snakes (group B) received an intramuscular injection of amikacin at 5 mg/kg followed by 2.5 mg/kg q 72 hr for a total of four injections. Plasma concentrations of amikacin were measured in both groups. Renal function was evaluated pre- and posttreatment via scintigraphy with 99mTc-mercaptoacetyltriglycine (99mTc-MAG3) and measurement of plasma uric acid concentrations. Mean (+/- SD) steady state amikacin concentration for group A was 6.9 +/- 1.7 microg/ml (predicted = 8.0 microg/ml), and the measured pump rate was 0.134 +/- 0.017 microl/hr (predicted = 0.130 microl/hr). Mean (+/- SD) peak and trough plasma amikacin concentrations for group B were 22.7 +/- 8.5 microg/ml and 14.3 +/- 7.0 microg/ml, respectively. While neither scintigraphy nor plasma uric acid concentrations indicated toxicity in either group, continuous administration of aminoglycosides may cause nephrotoxicity, and it is unknown whether this delivery method of amikacin would be efficacious in treating bacterial infections in snakes. In addition, due to migration of one pump into the trachea causing asphyxiation and death, these pumps may not be appropriate for intracoelomic placement in corn snakes. Nonetheless, the pumps delivered the drug at a predictable rate and were efficacious in achieving a constant plasma concentration of amikacin at the predicted level. Osmotic pumps may offer a safer alternative to periodic intramuscular injections for drug delivery in venomous or aggressive snakes.

Anesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol administered pre- versus postoperatively were determined and compared in 11 adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) anesthetized with sevoflurane and subjected to coelomic endoscopy for gonadal evaluation. Birds were randomly assigned to receive butorphanol tartrate (2 mg/kg IM) either 20 minutes before induction of anesthesia with sevoflurane (B-S group) or immediately after sevoflurane anesthesia (S group). No differences in induction or recovery times were seen between groups. Heart rates of birds in the B-S group were significantly higher at 30 minutes compared with baseline and with heart rates of birds in the S group. Birds in the S group had significantly lower heart rates at both 15 and 25 minutes compared with baseline values. Respiratory rates throughout the study were significantly lower in both groups compared with baseline values. Birds in the B-S group had significantly lower respiratory rates at baseline and after 1...

Pain management in reptiles is poorly understood and most published reptile opioid doses are empirically derived. In this study, five adult (3 male, 2 female) green iguanas, Iguana iguana, were given either 0.5 ml saline or an opioid analgesic agent intramuscularly 30 min prior to electrostimulation of the tail to compare responses. Opioid analgesic agents evaluated were butorphanol at 0.4, 1.5, 4.0 and 8.0 mg/kg, buprenorphine at 0.02 and 0.1 mg/kg, and morphine at 0.4 and 1.0 mg/kg. Electrostimulation was administered with a Grass stimulator® with the two electrodes placed 1 cm apart at the measured junction of the first and second thirds of the tail, randomly delivering currents of 2, 10, 20 and 40 mA for a duration of 500 mS, 10 min apart. The iguanas' responses were recorded on videotape so three evaluators, blinded to the agent given, could determine a score (0–20) based on a response scale developed for this study. Increasing scores correlated with increases in heart rate, and movement of ...

In a prospective study, eight (four males and four females) healthy, adult captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) were immobilized with a combination of tiletamine-zolazepam (4 mg/kg, i.m.), administered with a remote drug delivery system, to define normal cardiac morphology and function. Standard lateral and ventrodorsal (VD) radiographs were then taken to measure heart and thorax using a metric and vertebral scale system. Standard six-lead electrocardiograms were obtained with the animals in right lateral recumbency under isoflurane anesthesia. Mean chest depth and width was 18.7 +/- 1.3 cm and 13.0 +/- 0.6 cm, respectively. The mean lateral cardiac short axis (X) was 9.1 +/- 0.6 cm. the mean cardiac long axis (Y) was 13.6 +/- 0.7 cm, and the mean lateral heart sum (X + Y) was 22.6 +/- 1.2 cm. In the VD projection, mean cardiac short axis (V) was 10.1 +/- 0.7 cm, mean cardiac long axis (W) was 14.9 +/- 1.2 cm, and the heart sum (V + W) was 24.9 +/- 1.8 cm. The vertebral heart size was 8.2 +/- 0.9. All cheetahs had sinus rhythm, and no arrhythmias were noted. Mean heart rate was 126 +/- 15 beats/min, and the mean electrical axis was 82 + 5 degrees. P waves were always positive on lead II and had a width of 0.04 +/- 0.01 sec and a height between 0.1 and 0.3 mV. PR intervals were 0.11 +/- 0.01 sec. The height of the QRS complex was 1.25 +/- 0.24 mV and the width 0.06 +/- 0.01 sec. The ST segment was 0.04 sec, and the T wave (height: 0.25 +/- 0.05 mV) was positive in all cheetahs examined. Although these cardiac and thoracic measurements were larger than those of domestic cats (Felis catus), ratios of cardiac parameters were similar in both species. Electrocardiographic findings were similar to those reported from domestic cats.

The cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of isoflurane and propofol were determined in 10 healthy, adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen for 30 minutes. Cardiopulmonary parameters including heart rate, respiratory rate, relative arterial oxygen hemoglobin saturation (SpO2), and esophageal temperature were recorded at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes. End-tidal CO2 (EtCO2) concentrations and inspired and expired end-tidal isoflurane concentrations were recorded continuously. Before the study continued, birds were allowed to recover from isoflurane anesthesia for at least 2 hours. In a second trial, anesthesia was induced by intravenous administration of propofol (5 mg/kg) and maintained for 30 minutes by constant rate infusion of propofol (1 mg/kg per min IV). No supplemental oxygen was provided. Cardiopulmonary parameters and EtCO2 concentrations were recorded as in the isoflurane trial. Induction times...

Radiography and ultrasonography are important imaging tools for the morphologic and functional evaluation of internal organs and the diagnosis of reptilian diseases. The unique anatomy and architecture of the coelomic cavity and reptilian organs such as the respiratory tract will result in variations from the normal radiographic images seen in domestic animals and avian species. Radiography is the most commonly used imaging technique in reptiles to assess the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, and skeletal system. Specific metabolic disorders (eg, metabolic bone disease in lizards and chelonians) as well as infectious disease processes can also be diagnosed using radiographic techniques. Advanced imaging techniques, such as contrast radiography, scintigraphy, and ultrasonography, are commonly used but may present some unique challenges in reptiles because of their anatomy and pathophysiology of diseases. Pathologic changes can only be recognized and diagnosed with a good understanding and knowledge of reptile anatomy and pathophysiology. Normal radiographic appearance of reptiles and the application of advanced radiography, including nuclear imaging and ultrasonographic techniques, will be presented.

The sedative effects of medetomidine administered alone or in combination with ketamine or midazolam were evaluated in 20 adult pigeons (Columba livia). Six to 12 pigeons were randomly assigned to each of 5 treatment groups. Medetomidine administered alone (80, 150, or 200 μg/kg IM) caused effects ranging from ataxia to sternal recumbency, but the righting reflex was always retained. The level of sedation resulting from medetomidine (80 μg/kg IM) in combination with either ketamine (5 mg/kg IM) or midazolam (0.5 mg/kg IM) was variable; birds exhibited signs ranging from mild to heavy sedation. Heavy sedation was defined as loss of the righting reflex and profound muscle relaxation. Medetomidine-ketamine resulted in heavy sedation in 3 of 9 birds, whereas 5 of 12 birds were heavily sedated with medetomidine-midazolam. Atipamizole (0.5 mg/kg IM) was administered to reverse the effects of medetomidine. The length of time (mean ± SD) from atipamizole injection until loss of ataxia and return of full ...

A 10-yr-old, female, boa constrictor, Boa constrictor ortoni, with a malignant subcutaneous fibrosarcoma of the body wall was treated with surgery and adjunctive radiation therapy. A total...

Seven (three male and four female) 4-7-yr old captive servals (Felis serval) weighing 13.7 +/- 2.3 kg were used to evaluate the cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of combined intramuscular injections of medetomidine (47.4 +/- 10.3 microg/kg), ketamine (1.0 +/- 0.2 mg/kg), and butorphanol (0.2 +/- 0.03 mg/kg). Inductions were smooth and rapid (11.7 +/- 4.3 min) and resulted in good muscle relaxation. Significant decreases in heart rate (85 +/- 12 beats/min) at 10 min after injection and respiratory rate (27 +/- 10 breaths/min) at 5 min after injection continued throughout the immobilization period. Rectal temperature and arterial blood pressure did not change significantly. The PaO2 decreased significantly, and PaCO2 increased significantly during immobilization but remained within clinically acceptable limits. Hypoxemia (PaO2 < 60 mm Hg) was not noted, and arterial blood oxygen saturation (SaO2) was greater than 90% at all times. Relative arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) values, indicated by pulse oximetry, were lower than SaO2 values. All animals could be safely handled while sedated. Administration of atipamezole (236.8 +/- 51.2 microg/kg half i.v. and half s.c.), an alpha2 antagonist, resulted in rapid (4.1 +/- 3 min to standing) and smooth recoveries.

Eight captive ostriches (Struthio camelus), ranging in age from 9 to 11 months, were given a combination of medetomidine and ketamine, administered intramuscularly, and propofol, administered intravenously, for induction and maintenance of anesthesia. Medetomidine (80 μg/kg IM) and ketamine (2 mg/kg IM) resulted in profound sedation and sternal recumbency within a mean time of 14.6 ± 10.0 minutes in 6 birds. Two birds remained standing but were moderately sedated. Propofol, used for induction (3 mg/kg IV) and maintenance (0.2 mg/kg/min constant rate infusion) of anesthesia, enabled intubation and provided muscle relaxation sufficient for restraint lasting 30 minutes. Apnea was observed after propofol administration, but spontaneous ventilation resumed within 60 to 90 seconds. All birds were bradycardic throughout the anesthetic event. Both the heart rate and the cloacal body temperature decreased significantly at 25 and 30 minutes, respectively, after induction. By 5 minutes after induction, the ...

A 16-year-old captive-bred male eastern kingsnake (Lampropeltis getulus getulus) was presented to the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of Florida for evaluation of a bleeding mass which was first noted 2 months prior to presentation. The grayish mass was 2 3 2 3 5 cm, firm, ovoid, raised above the ventral scales, and located ventral to the liver. The snake was anesthetized with isoflurane in 100% oxygen, and the mass was found firmly attached to the fascia of the skin and the underlying skeletal musculature. Because of the invasiveness of the mass into the surrounding tissue, complete excision was not possible. Tissue samples were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 5 mm, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE), and sections were examined by light microscopy. Microscopically, the mass was composed of sheets and interwoven bundles of contiguous neoplastic cells ranging from round to polygonal to fusiform. Neoplastic cells had scant to abundant, eosinophilic, foamy to fibrillar cytoplasm and variably distinct borders. Nuclei were moderately anisokaryotic, round to elongate, and euchromatic to vesicular and frequently contained single or multiple nucleoli of various sizes. Mitotic figures were rare, and vascular invasion by tumor cells was not detected. Neoplastic tissue invaded adjoining skeletal muscle and extended to the surgical margins (Fig. 1). No bacterial or fungal organisms were detected by Goodpasture, Fites, or Gomori methenamine silver stains. An anatomic diagnosis of undifferentiated sarcoma was made. Given the invasive nature and the incomplete excision, recurrence was considered likely. After 6 months, the mass had regrown at the original site and was approximately the same size as the previous mass. To stage this neoplastic disease, a diagnostic evaluation was performed. Whole body radiographs were within normal limits. An ultrasonogram revealed a heteroechoic mass extending from the skin into the coelomic cavity, displacing the lung. The liver was uniform in echogenicity and texture. Hematologic parameters revealed a leukocytosis (11,300 cells/ml), lymphocytosis (5,760 cells/ml), and anemia (packed cell volume [PCV] 5 17%). Plasma biochemical parameters were within normal limits. When the mass was reexcised, it was found to be firmly attached to the surrounding skeletal musculature and invading the coelomic cavity. Portions of the mass were processed as described above for histopathologic evaluation. Findings were similar to

Respiratory disease is one of the most commonly encountered disease processes in collections of captive reptiles. In many cases, improper husbandry techniques, including too high or too low temperatures, inadequate humidity, and poor nutrition will compromise the reptile's immune system and its response to potential pathogens. Poor hygiene and lack of quarantine procedures may allow introduction of potential pathogens into an established collection of reptiles. A variety of infectious and noninfectious agents have been associated with respiratory tract disease in reptiles. In many cases, multiple organisms are isolated from a reptile patient with respiratory tract disease. Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial organisms may be the primary agents causing respiratory tract disease or can be secondary invaders in reptiles with viral respiratory disease. Treatment should be based on eliminating predisposing factors such as improper husbandry, proper collection of diagnostic samples, culture and sensitivity testing, and selection of proper antimicrobial agents. Adequate supportive therapy, including fluid therapy and nutritional support, is indicated in patients with clinical signs of anorexia, lethargy, and systemic illness. Ultimately, preventing introduction of potential pathogens into an established collection, developing specific diagnostic tests, and vaccines will protect the reptile patient from the most commonly encountered pathogens.

A 13-yr-old intact male African lion (Panthera leo) presented with a 4-mo history of left maxillary lip swelling. On physical examination, a 10-cm-diameter, ulcerated, round, firm, and pigmented mass at the level of the left maxillary canine tooth was noticed. All other organ systems examined were within normal limits. Multiple biopsies of the mass were collected and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin. Histopathologic evaluation of the biopsies revealed a malignant dermal melanoma. Hematologic and plasma biochemical parameters were within normal reference ranges. Thoracic radiographs taken 3 days following initial presentation showed no evidence of metastasis of the tumor. Computed tomography of the skull and neck was performed to evaluate local tumor invasion and to plan for hypofractionated radiation therapy. Therapy included four weekly treatments of 8 gray external-beam hypofractionated radiation and four bimonthly immunotherapy treatments. Following this treatment regime, the tumor size was reduced by 50%, and surgical excision was performed. No major side effects associated with radiation or immunotherapy were seen. Six months after diagnosis, hematologic and plasma biochemical parameters were within normal limits, thoracic radiographs showed no evidence of metastasis, and the lion showed no clinical signs of disease. The lion will continue to receive immunotherapy every 6 mo for the rest of its life. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a successful treatment of a malignant dermal melanoma with external-beam hypofractionated radiation, immunotherapy, and surgical excision in an African lion.

A simple high-performance liquid chromatography method for the determination of cefovecin in small volume plasma has been developed. Following solid-phase extraction using Oasis HLB cartridges, samples were separated by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography on an XBridge C8 (3.5 µm) 4.6 × 250 mm column and quantified using ultraviolet detection at 280 nm. The mobile phase was a mixture of 10 mm ammonium acetate (pH 3.5) and acetonitrile (89:11), with a flow rate of 0.85 mL/min. The standard curve ranged from 0.1 to 200 µg/mL. Intra- and Inter-assay variability for cefovecin was10%, and the average recovery was90%. The lower limit of quantitation was 0.1 µg/mL. This method was successfully applied to the analysis of cefovecin samples at our institution. This is also the first fully validated method with an internal standard that does not use mass spectrometry.

A 15-year-old male North American cougar (Felis concolor) presented with a 2-day history of anorexia, restlessness, and dyspnea. White blood cell count ( cells/μL) and absolute segmented neutrophil count ( cells/μL) were increased, and BUN (143 mg/dL), creatinine (6.3 mg/dL), and phosphorus (8.5 mg/dL) concentrations indicated chronic renal disease. Thoracic radiographs showed severe pleural and pericardial effusion. During attempts to remove the fluid, cardiac tamponade developed and the cat died. At necropsy, nodular masses decorated the pericardium at the level of the base of the heart. The final microscopic diagnosis was mesothelioma of the pericardium, tunica adventitia of the main pulmonary artery, left auricle epicardium, and left ventricular epicardium. A 15-year-old female cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) was evaluated for acute respiratory distress. The white blood cell count ( cells/μL) and absolute segmented neutrophil count ( cells/μL) were increased. Radiographically pleural effusion and a cranial thoracic mass were seen. The cheetah was euthanized, and a gross diagnosis of disseminated pleural mesothelioma with thoracic effusion was made. Histologically, pleural mesothelioma was confirmed with local invasion of the lung and pulmonary arterial emboli and infarction. In both cases, a diagnosis of mesothelioma was made based on cellular morphology, microscopic architecture, and neoplastic cell coexpression of cytokeratin and vimentin.

Chronic kidney disease is a common finding in older captive exotic felids. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a probiotic to reduce blood urea nitrogen and creatinine in large felids. Fifteen adult, large felids (6 tigers [Panthera tigris], 5 lions [Panthera leo], 3 cougars [Puma concolor], and 1 leopard [Panthera pardus]) were administered a probiotic twice daily after a baseline complete blood cell count and plasma chemistry panel was obtained. Plasma chemistry values were rechecked at 2 mo (n = 14) and 6 mo (n = 9). There was no significant change in blood urea nitrogen over time; however, there was a significant change in creatinine over time (P = 0.04). Creatinine concentration decreased significantly between 2 and 6 mo (P = 0.02), and a decrease was seen between 0 and 6 mo, but this change was not significant (P = 0.05). There was no significant difference noted for creatinine concentration between 0 and 2 mo (P = 0.35). This probiotic may be helpful in large felids with elevated creatinine concentrations because of chronic kidney disease; however, further studies are warranted.

From August 1990 to June 1991, a moderate die-off of 4- to 5-year-old green sea turtles ( Chelonia mydas) occurred at Cayman Turtle Farm, Grand Cayman, British West Indies. Clinical signs included lethargy, anorexia, and inability to dive. Many of the ill turtles floated on the surface of their tanks. There was no apparent sex predilection. Complete necropsies, including histopathologic examination of tissues, were performed on eight turtles. Necropsies revealed multiple irregular discrete to patchy 1–10-mm pale gray foci throughout the hearts of four turtles. By light microscopic examination, the most severe and consistent lesions were necrotizing myocarditis, histiocytic to fibrinous splenitis, and hepatic lipidosis and necrosis. A mixed leukocytic infiltrate of acidophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes was present in affected areas of the heart. Other lesions included lymphocytic/plasmacytic interstitial nephritis, subacute interstitial pneumonia, subacute mesenteric vasculitis, chronic/active enteritis of the small intestine, and occasional granulomas associated with spirorchid trematode ova. Chlamydiae could be demonstrated in macrophages in sections of paraffin-embedded heart, liver, and spleen and in myocardial fibers and hepatocytes using a modified Macchiavello's stain. Chlamydial antigen was detected by light microscopic examination in the cytoplasm of myocardial fibers and in occasional hepatocytes using a commercially available genus-specific antichlamydial monoclonal antibody and the avidin biotin peroxidase complex staining method. Electron microscopic examination of the heart of the most severely affected turtle revealed developmental stages of chlamydial organisms. A suspension of heart from this turtle was inoculated into the yolk sacs of chicken embryos. Chlamydial elementary bodies could be demonstrated in infected yolk-sac membranes approximately 7 days after inoculation.

Ranaviruses (genus Ranavirus) have been observed in disease epidemics and mass mortality events in free-ranging amphibian, turtle, and tortoise populations worldwide. Infection is highly fatal in turtles, and the potential impact on endangered populations could be devastating. Our objectives were to determine the prevalence of ranavirus DNA in blood and oral swabs, report associated clinical signs of infection, and determine spatial distribution of infected turtles. Blood and oral swabs were taken from 140 eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) that were presented to the wildlife centers at the University of Tennessee (UT; n=39), Wildlife Center of Virginia (WCV; n=34), and North Carolina State University (NCSU; n=36), as well as a free-ranging nonrehabilitation population near Oak Ridge, Tennessee (OR; n=39) March-November 2007. Samples were evaluated for ranavirus infection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting a conserved portion of the major capsid protein. Two turtles, one from UT and one from NCSU, had evidence of ranavirus infection; sequences of PCR products were 100% homologous to Frog Virus 3. Prevalence of ranavirus DNA in blood was 3, 0, 3, and 0% for UT, WCV, NCSU, and OR, respectively. Prevalence in oral swab samples was 3, 0, and 0% for UT, WCV, and NCSU, respectively. Wildlife centers may be useful in detection of Ranavirus infection and may serve as a useful early monitoring point for regional disease outbreaks.

Hemolymph gas parameters were evaluated using a point-of-care analyzer in healthy American horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) at rest and after short- and long-term removal from water. Baseline vascular pH, partial pressure of oxygen (PO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, base excess, total carbon dioxide, and lactate concentrations were determined from hemolymph samples collected from 10 horseshoe crabs (group 1) submerged in water and were compared with values after removal from water for 5 min, and after recovery in water for 10 min and for longer than 60 min (range, 61-221 min). Hemolymph gas parameters were also determined in 12 horseshoe crabs (group 2) after shipment out of water for 24 hr and were compared with values obtained from group 1 animals. Baseline hemolymph gas values of the American horseshoe crab are within range for other aquatic vertebrates. After removal from water for 5 min, all group 1 crabs developed severe hypoxia, with PO2 levels falling below the detectable limit of the analyzer. Group 2 crabs had pronounced respiratory acidosis, and their PO2 values were significantly below baseline values of group 1 animals.

Eleven cases of pyometra were diagnosed in a captive exotic felid collection over 3 yr in seven African lions (Panthera leo), two tigers (P. tigris), one liger (lion-tiger crossbreed), and one leopard (P. pardus). Clinical signs included anorexia, lethargy, vulvar discharge, and vomiting. Diagnosis was based on clinical signs, complete blood cell counts, plasma biochemistry and electrolyte values, radiographs, and abdominal ultrasonography. The most common findings on complete blood count and biochemistry profiles were leukocytosis (15,000/microL) and hyperproteinemia (8.2 g/dL) due to increased globulins. Abdominal radiographic findings were largely nonspecific, but ultrasonography routinely showed a distended, fluid-filled uterus. Each case was treated with ovariohysterectomy and systemic antibiotic therapy. Lions were shown to be at an increased risk for developing pyometra compared with other species. Pyometra should be considered as a differential diagnosis in anorexic or lethargic intact female large felids, and ovariohysterectomy may be warranted in nonbreeding female lions.

A 39-yr-old wild-caught, female western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) died during an immobilization to assess swelling and apparent pain of the cervical region. Necropsy revealed a fistulous tract containing plant material in the oropharynx, above the soft palate, communicating with a left-sided cervical necrotizing fasciitis and myositis. Alpha-hemolytic Streptococcus and Prevotella sp. were isolated from the cervical lesion. This is a report of cervical necrotizing fasciitis in a western lowland gorilla.

Case Description—A 5-month-old captive female striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) was evaluated because of lethargy, signs of depression, azotemia, and erythema of the skin around the eyes. Clinical Findings—Antemortem diagnostic tests revealed renal disease but failed to identify an etiologic agent. A diagnosis of severe nonsuppurative interstitial nephritis was made on the basis of results of histologic examination of renal biopsy specimens. Treatment and Outcome—The skunk was administered isotonic fluids SC daily and later every other day because of the handling-related stress. Because of the skunk's deteriorating condition, it was euthanized after 24 days of supportive care. Aleutian disease was diagnosed on the basis of positive results of a PCR assay that targeted the DNA from Aleutian disease virus (ADV); positive results for ADV were also obtained by use of plasma counterimmunoelectrophoresis and an ELISA. Genetic sequencing of the 365-base pair PCR product revealed 90% sequence identity with mink ADV. Clinical Relevance—In the skunk of this report, infection with a skunk-specific parvovirus resulted in clinical signs and pathologic changes similar to those associated with ADV infection in mink. For skunks with signs of renal failure, differential diagnoses should include parvovirus infection. In confirmed cases of infection with this ADV-like virus, appropriate quarantine and biosecurity measures should be in place to prevent spread to other susceptible animals within a zoological collection.

Anatomical properties of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida) heart and associated blood vessels reveal adaptations related to requirements for diving. Seven adult ringed seals were embalmed and dissected to document the gross anatomical features of the heart. Computed tomography images of the thoracic cavity were taken on one seal prior to dissection. The shape and position of the heart is different from the typical carnivore heart. The most notable difference is its dorsoventral flattened appearance with its right and left sides positioned, respectively, within the thoracic cavity. The long axis of the heart is positioned horizontally, parallel to the sternum. The right ventricle is spacious with thin walls which extend caudally to the apex of the heart such that the apex is comprised of both right and left ventricles. The cusps of the left atrioventricular valve of the ringed seal heart resemble an uninterrupted, circular curtain making it challenging to distinguish the divisions into parietal and septal cusps.

Objective—To evaluate the use of computed tomography (CT) for detection of pneumonia in snakes. Animals—8 clinically normal Indian pythons (Python molurus) and 5 pythons with evidence of respiratory tract disease. Procedures—Preliminary examinations (clinical examination, conventional radiography, and microbiologic examination of a transtracheal wash sample) were performed. The lungs of each snake were then examined by use of CT performed in accordance with a standardized protocol. Structures of the lungs were assessed, and thickness and attenuation of the parenchyma were determined. Results—It was possible to assess lung parenchyma in all pythons. Mean ± SD attenuation in healthy pythons was −744.4 ± 47.1 Hounsfield units. Significant differences were not evident between the right and left lungs or among measurement areas within a lung. In all Indian pythons with clinical signs of dyspnea and microbiologic detection of pathogens, hyperattenuation of the alveolar tissue was evident. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Analysis of the results revealed the benefit of CT for use in the diagnosis of pneumonia in snakes. A standardized protocol and reference values were established as a basis for CT assessment of the lungs of snakes.

The anesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol followed by sevoflurane or isoflurane were compared in 23 male green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Heart and respiratory rates were recorded before administration of butorphanol (2 mg/kg i.m.) and at 30 min after premedication. Anesthesia was induced in 12 iguanas (group 1) with isoflurane (5%) and in 11 iguanas (group 2) with sevoflurane (7%). Heart rate, relative arterial oxygen hemoglobin saturation (SpO2), and end-tidal CO2 concentrations (EtCO2) were measured every minute for the first 5 min and every 5 min thereafter. Arterial blood gas parameters were determined at 10 and 40 min after induction. Thirty minutes after butorphanol administration, no significant changes in heart and respiratory rate were seen as compared with baseline values. Quality and time to induction were superior with butorphanol-sevoflurane (6 +/- 3 min) than with butorphanol-isoflurane (9 +/- 4 min). Vaporizer settings during maintenance ranged between 1-3% and 2-4%, respectively. No significant differences in heart rate were noted between groups. In the sevoflurane group, SpO2 values were90% throughout. Although SpO2, values were90% at 20, 25, and 30 min in the isoflurane group, no significant differences in SpO2 values were seen over time and between groups. A significant decrease in EtCO2 with time was present in both groups, with no significant differences between the groups. At 10 and 40 min, arterial blood oxygen saturation values were90% in both groups and no significant differences were noted with time and between groups. Recovery time was significantly longer in the butorphanol-isoflurane group (35 +/- 27 min) than in the butorphanol-sevoflurane group (7 +/- 4 min). The cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol-isoflurane and butorphanol-sevoflurane assessed in this study are similar, and both inhalants appear to be safe and effective for induction and maintenance in the green iguana.