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The Western honeybees Apis mellifera carnica and A. m. ligustica are closely related subspecies living in neighbouring regions. Metabolism and the upper lethal thermal limits are crucial physiological traits, adapted in the evolutionary process to environment and climate conditions. We investigated whether samples from these two ecotypes differ in these traits. The standard metabolic rate was higher in the A. m. ligustica population only at a high temperature (T a ~ 40 °C; dVCO2 = 12 nl s−1; P < 0.05), probably due to a higher body temperature (dTthorax = 1.5 °C; P < 0.01). The critical thermal maximum of activity and respiration was similar (difference activity CTmax = 0.8 °C, respiratory CTmax = 1.1 °C). The lethal temperature (LT50, 8h) revealed higher tolerance and survival rates of the Ligustica bees (Carnica 50.3 °C; Ligustica 51.7 °C; P < 0.02). Results reveal the adaptation of the two subspecies to their historic climate conditions, possibly favouring Ligustica in a warming environment.

Helmut Kovac, Anton Stabentheiner, Helmut Käfer, Barbara Oswald

Polistine wasps collect nectar for their energetic demand and for the provision of the brood. They are mainly ectothermic during different behavioral tasks. We investigated the body temperature of two species living in differing habitats and climate regions, in order to reveal the environmental influence on their thermoregulatory behavior. The species were Polistes dominula in the temperate climate of Central Europe, and Polistes gallicus in the warm Mediterranean climate of Southern Europe. The wasp’s body temperature was measured during foraging on lovage (Levisticum officinale) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) by infrared thermography in the entire ambient temperature range they are usually exposed to (Ta ~ 20–40 °C). The temperature of all body parts increased nearly linearly with ambient temperature, with the thorax as the warmest part. To achieve optimal foraging temperatures, they preferably use solar radiation. An “operative temperature model” enabled the evaluation of the endothermic effort. Polistes dominula foraging on lovage exhibited no endothermic activity. However, while foraging on fennel they had a weak and almost constant endothermic performance of about 1 °C. Polistes gallicus, by contrast, exhibited mostly no or only minor endothermy during foraging. Both wasps avoid a high energetic effort and this way reduce their foraging costs.

The European paper wasp, Polistes dominulus Christ, is an abundant wasp species in South and Central Europe which dispersed to the north in recent times. Polistes dominulus exhibits an energy-extensive mode of life, spending much time resting at the nest, which should be reflected in adaptations regarding gas exchange and standard metabolism. We analysed the resting metabolism (CO2 emission) of Polistes dominulus workers in the ambient temperature range an individual may be exposed to during a breeding season (T a = 2.4–40.6 °C) via flow through respirometry. Behaviour and endothermic activity were assessed by infrared thermography. With rising T a, CO2 release followed an exponential increase from 27 to 149 and 802 nl g−1 min−1 at T a = 3, 20 and 35 °C, respectively. Measurements of the thermal regime at the nest showed that resting P. dominulus are most of the time in the lower range of their standard metabolic curve. A comparison with a “highly energetic” wasp like Vespula sp. revealed that Polistes dominulus not only optimises behaviour but also reduces metabolism to save energy. The CO2 emission patterns changed with ambient temperature, from discontinuous (≤25 °C) to cyclic (25–36 °C) and continuous gas exchange at higher temperatures. A pronounced break appeared in the data progression regarding cycle frequency and CO2 emission per gas exchange cycle between 15 and 10 °C. This striking change in gas exchange features indicates a physiological adaptation to special respiratory requirements at low temperatures.

We investigated the respiration patterns of wasps (Vespula sp.) in their viable temperature range (2.942.4 C) by measuring CO2 production and locomotor and endothermic activity. Wasps showed cycles of an interburstburst type at low ambient temperatures (Ta < 5 C) or typical discontinuous gas exchange patterns with closed, flutter and open phases. At high Ta of >31 C, CO2 emission became cyclic. With rising Ta they enhanced CO2-emission primarily by an exponential increase in respiration frequency, from 2.6 mHz at 4.7 C to 74 mHz at 39.7 C. In the same range of Ta CO2 release per cycle decreased from 38.9 to 26.4 l g1 cycle1. A comparison of wasps with other insects showed that they are among the insects with a low respiratory frequency at a given resting metabolic rate (RMR), and a relatively flat increase of respiratory frequency with RMR. CO2 emission was always accompanied by abdominal respiration movements in all open phases and in 71.4% of the flutter phases, often accompanied by body movements. Results suggest that resting wasps gain their highly efficient gas exchange to a considerable extent via the length and type of respiration movements.

Endothermic insects like honeybees and some wasps have to cope with an enormous heat loss during foraging because of their small body size in comparison to endotherms like mammals and birds. The enormous costs of thermoregulation call for optimisation. Honeybees and wasps differ in their critical thermal maximum, which enables the bees to kill the wasps by heat. We here demonstrate the benefits of a combined use of body temperature measurement with infrared thermography, and respiratory measurements of energy turnover (O2 consumption or CO2 production via flow-through respirometry) to answer questions of insect ecophysiological research, and we describe calibrations to receive accurate results. To assess the question of what foraging honeybees optimise, their body temperature was compared with their energy turnover. Honeybees foraging from an artificial flower with unlimited sucrose flow increased body surface temperature and energy turnover with profitability of foraging (sucrose content of the food; 0.5 or 1.5 mol/L). Costs of thermoregulation, however, were rather independent of ambient temperature (13–30 °C). External heat gain by solar radiation was used to increase body temperature. This optimised foraging energetics by increasing suction speed. In determinations of insect respiratory critical thermal limits, the combined use of respiratory measurements and thermography made possible a more conclusive interpretation of respiratory traces.