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Lithium is an effective mood stabiliser used to treat bipolar affective disorder (BPAD); however, it can also adversely affect the kidneys, causing acute toxic effects, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, chronic renal dysfunction and end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in a minority of patients. We describe the case of a man with a 34-year history of BPAD type-1 and a 2-year history of ESKD secondary to lithium-induced nephropathy who experienced a manic relapse. He previously responded well to lithium but, following a deterioration in kidney function, was switched to olanzapine and sodium valproate. This precipitated a period of instability, which culminated in a treatment-resistant manic episode requiring hospital admission. After a multidisciplinary team discussion, lithium therapy was restarted and provided remission. This was achieved safely through a reduced dosing schedule of three times a week post dialysis, slow dose titration and blood level monitoring prior to each dialysis session.

OBJECTIVE Valproic acid (VPA) is used for the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder (BD). The aims of this study was to examine that long-term VPA use affects mortality in BD patients. METHODS Association analysis was conducted using the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD) of Taiwan. The long-term VPA use group was selected as patients treated with VPA for BD who used VPA only. The control group consisted of BD patients who were not treated with VPA or lithium. The lithium use group consisted by BD patients used lithium only was also joined the analysis. The cofactors included age (>65 years), sex and the Charlson Comorbidity Index. RESULTS The hazard ratio (HR) of mortality for the VPA group was 0.83 (95% confidence interval (CI), (0.70-0.99); P = 0.04) and the result of lithium group did not reach statistical significance. Furthermore only the duration> 3 years subgroup had a significantly lower incidence of mortality than the control group, with an HR of 0.54 (95% CI, (0.42-0.70); P

In the experiments on rats with a model of systemic vasculitis, it is shown that exogenous load on the body of nephrotoxic microele­ments, such as cadmium, lithium and molybdenum, affects the integral morphological indicators of kidney structure lesions, in particular cases of thickened basement membrane of Shumlianskyi capsule became 6.7 times more frequent, the severity of arteriolar endothelial proliferation increased by 63 % and degenerative (atrophic) changes in the tubules — by 21 %.

BACKGROUND: A case series suggested efficacy for lithium to treat agitation in dementia, but no placebo-controlled trials have been conducted. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate low-dose lithium treatment of agitation in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). METHOD: In a four-site trial, patients with AD and agitation/aggression score ≥ 4 on the Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) were randomized, double-blind, to lithium carbonate 150–600 mg daily or placebo for 12 weeks. Primary efficacy outcome was change in NPI agitation/aggression; secondary efficacy outcome was treatment response (30% reduction in NPI score for agitation/aggression plus psychosis and a Clinical Global Impression (CGI) score of much or very much improved). Safety profile of lithium was assessed. RESULTS: Fifty-eight of 77 patients (75.3%) completed the trial. In linear mixed effects model analyses, lithium was not significantly superior to placebo for agitation/aggression. Proportion of responders was 31.6% on lithium and 17.9% on placebo (χ(2)=1.26, p=0.26). Moderate or marked improvement (CGI) was greater on lithium (10/38=36.8%) than placebo (0/39=0%, Fisher’s exact test p

Lithium is associated with oxidative stress and apoptosis, but the mechanism by which lithium protects against spinal cord injury remains poorly understood. In this study, we found that intraperitoneal administration of lithium chloride (LiCl) in a rat model of spinal cord injury alleviated pathological spinal cord injury and inhibited expression of tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-6, and interleukin 1 β. Lithium inhibited pyroptosis and reduced inflammation by inhibiting Caspase-1 expression, reducing the oxidative stress response, and inhibiting activation of the Nod-like receptor protein 3 inflammasome. We also investigated the neuroprotective effects of lithium intervention on oxygen/glucose-deprived PC12 cells. We found that lithium reduced inflammation, oxidative damage, apoptosis, and necrosis and up-regulated nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 in PC12 cells. All-trans retinoic acid, an Nrf2 inhibitor, reversed the effects of lithium. These results suggest that lithium exerts anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-pyroptotic effects through the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway to promote recovery after spinal cord injury. This study was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Xi'an Jiaotong University (approval No. 2018-2053) on October 23, 2018.

Krabbe disease (KD; or globoid cell leukodystrophy) is an autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disorder caused by deficiency of the galactosylceramidase (GALC) enzyme. No cure is currently available for KD. Clinical applied treatments are supportive only. Recently, we demonstrated that two differently acting autophagy inducers (lithium and rapamycin) can improve some KD hallmarks in‐vitro, laying the foundation for their in‐vivo pre‐clinical testing. Here, we test lithium carbonate in‐vivo, in the spontaneous mouse model for KD, the Twitcher (TWI) mouse. The drug is administered ad libitum via drinking water (600 mg/L) starting from post natal day 20. We longitudinally monitor the mouse motor performance through the grip strength, the hanging wire and the rotarod tests, and a set of biochemical parameters related to the KD pathogenesis [i.e., GALC enzymatic activity, psychosine (PSY) accumulation and astrogliosis]. Additionally, we investigate the expression of some crucial markers related to the two pathways that could be altered by lithium: the autophagy and the β‐catenin‐dependent pathways. Results demonstrate that lithium has not a significant rescue effect on the TWI phenotype, although it can slightly and transiently improves muscle strength. We also show that lithium, with this administration protocol, is unable to stimulate autophagy in the TWI mice central nervous system, whereas results suggest that it can restore the β‐catenin activation status in the TWI sciatic nerve. Overall, these data provide intriguing inputs for further evaluations of lithium treatment in TWI mice.

Objective Lithium is a drug of choice in the treatment of bipolar disorder and refractory depressive disorders. However, previous research suggests lithium has a negative cognitive impact in recovery from electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and a higher risk of delirium, so patients are often required to stop taking lithium before ECT, despite risk of relapse. We studied the cognitive impact of serum lithium levels in patients undergoing ECT. Methods This was an observational prospective study. Serum lithium levels, thyroid and biochemical parameters were measured prior to each ECT session. Time elapsed from the anesthetic induction to the electrical stimulus and then to the patients’ reorientation was recorded, as well as the motor seizure duration and electroencephalogram (EEG) seizure duration. A statistical analysis using a linear mixed model was run while adjusting for confounding factors. Results Ten participants underwent a total of 86 ECT sessions (41% right unilateral ultrabrief pulse, and 59% bilateral brief pulse). A negative interaction between lithium levels and reorientation time was found among those doing bilateral brief pulse ECT. No association was observed in patients doing unilateral ultrabrief pulse ECT. No significant relationship was observed between lithium and both motor and EEG-assessed seizure duration. Conclusion This study suggests that low to moderate serum lithium levels (< 0.7 mmol/L) might have no harmful cognitive effects in patients under right unilateral ultrabrief pulse and bilateral brief pulse ECT.

The hyperphosphorylation of tau is a central mechanism in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Lithium is a potent inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3β), the most important tau kinase in neurons, and may also affect tau phosphorylation by modifying the expression and/or activity of other kinases, such as protein kinase A (PKA), Akt (PKB), and calcium calmodulin kinase-II (CaMKII). The aim of the present study is to determine the effect of chronic lithium treatment on the protein expression of tau and its major kinases in cortical and hippocampal neurons, at distinct working concentrations. Primary cultures of cortical and hippocampal neurons were treated with sub-therapeutic (0.02 mM and 0.2 mM) and therapeutic (2 mM) concentrations of lithium for 7 days. Protein expression of tau and tau-kinases was determined by immunoblotting. An indirect estimate of GSK3β activity was determined by the GSK3β ratio (rGSKβ). Statistically significant increments in the protein expression of tau and CaMKII were observed both in cortical and hippocampal neurons treated with subtherapeutic doses of lithium. GSK3β activity was increased in cortical, but decreased in hippocampal neurons. Distinct patterns of changes in the expression of the remaining tau tau-kinases were observed: in cortical neurons, lithium treatment was associated with consistent decrements in Akt and PKA, whereas hippocampal neurons displayed increased protein expression of Akt and decreased PKA. Our results suggest that chronic lithium treatment may yield distinct biological effects depending on the concentration range, with regional specificity. We further suggest that hippocampal neurons may be more sensitive to the effect of lithium, presenting with changes in the expression of tau-related proteins at subtherapeutic doses, which may not be mirrored by the effects observed in cortical neurons.

Background Bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with marked parenchymal brain loss in a significant fraction of patients. The lack of necrosis in postmortem examination suggests an apoptotic process. Emerging evidence suggests that mood stabilizers, like lithium, have antiapoptotic actions. Glutamatergic abnormalities have been associated with BD. Methods Olfactory neuroepithelial progenitors (ONPs) harvested by biopsy from type I bipolar patients (BD-ONPs, n = 3) and non-bipolar controls (non-BD-ONPs, n = 6), were treated with glutamate at concentrations sufficient to mimic the observed doubling of intracellular sodium known to occur in both mania and bipolar depression, to investigate potential differential lithium effect on both BD-ONPs and non-BD-ONPs. Results Apoptosis was detected in BP-ONPs exposed to 0.1 M glutamate for 6 h but in non-BD-ONPs at 24 h. Moreover, after treatment with 0.1 M glutamate treated for 6 h the levels of the pro-apoptotic cleaved-caspase-3 and cleaved-PARP proteins were significantly higher in BD-ONPs compare to non-BD-ONPs. Pretreatment with a therapeutic concentration of 1 mM lithium for 3 days attenuated the glutamate induced apoptosis. Lithium pretreatment 3 days also prevented the DNA fragmentation induced by glutamate, and significantly increased the antiapoptotic phospho-B-Raf and Bcl-2 proteins in BD-ONPs compared to non-BD-ONPs. Limitations ONPs are obtained from subjects with and without bipolar illness, but outcome of their study may still not reflect the biology of the illness. Conclusions ONPs derived from BD are more susceptible to glutamate-induced apoptosis. Lithium is associated with a greater increase of anti-apoptotic B-Raf and Bcl-2 expression in BD-ONPs.

Lithium has been a drug for bipolar disorders (BD) for over 70 years; however, its usage has been limited by its narrow therapeutic window (between 0.6 and 1.2 mM). Understanding the cellular distribution of lithium ions (Li+) in patient cells will offer deep insight into this limitation, but selective imaging of Li+ in living cells under biomedically relevant concentration ranges has not been achieved. Herein, we report in vitro selection and development of a Li+-specific DNAzyme fluorescent sensor with >100-fold selectivity over other biorelevant metal ions. This sensor allows comparative Li+ visualization in HeLa cells, human neuronal progenitor cells (NPCs), and neurons derived from BD patients and healthy controls. Strikingly, we detected enhanced accumulation of Li+ in cells derived from BD patients compared with healthy controls in differentiated neurons but not NPCs. These results establish the DNAzyme-based sensor as a novel platform for biomedical research into BD and related areas using lithium drugs., A highly Li+ selective DNAzyme sensor for live imaging of Li+ at a biomedical relevant concentration range reveals bipolar disorder patient-derived neurons can accumulate more Li+ than healthy neurons can.

Background: We primarily aimed to explore the associations between duration of untreated illness (DUI), treatment response, and functioning in a cohort of patients with bipolar disorder (BD). Methods: 261 participants with BD were recruited. DUI was defined as months from the first affective episode to the start of a mood-stabilizer. The functioning assessment short test (FAST) scores and treatment response scores for lithium, valproate, or lamotrigine according to the Alda Scale Total Score (TS) were compared between patients with short (

Background Lithium is one of the most effective medications for bipolar disorder episode prevention, but its mechanism of action is still largely unknown. The hippocampus is a subcortical cerebral structure involved in the formation of emotional responses, cognition and various primitive functions, altered during affective episodes. Deviations in the anatomy or physiology of the hippocampus would partially explain the symptomatology of bipolar subjects, and restoration may reflect treatment response. Methods In this mini review, we summarize the studies which have investigated the effect of lithium intake on the volume of hippocampus, measured using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We performed a bibliographic search on PubMed, using the terms terms “hippocampus”, “lithium”, “bipolar disorder”, “volume” and “MRI”. Only original studies were considered. Results Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Nine studies demonstrated increased total hippocampal volume or hippocampal subfield volumes in BD patients on lithium treatment (Li BD) compared to those not taking lithium (non-Li BD), while four failed to show significant differences between groups. When healthy controls were compared to either the Li subjects or the non-Li ones, the findings were more heterogeneous. Limitations Heterogeneity in the methodology and definition of groups limits the comparison of study results. Conclusions Lithium may be associated with increased hippocampal volume in BD, potentially due to its putative neurotrophic action, but further research is needed better define the morphological alterations of hippocampus in BD and the longitudinal effects of lithium in the short and long-term.

Background Lithium use causes goiter by increasing serum thyroid-stimulating hormone levels through the inhibition of thyroid hormone release. However, there are no reports of poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma resulting from lithium-induced goiter. Herein, we report the case of a patient with schizophrenia who developed poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma arising from a lithium-induced goiter. Case presentation A 61-year-old woman who was taking lithium for schizophrenia, visited the thyroid-endocrine center with a 10 × 12 cm anterior neck mass. She had a slowly growing goiter approximately 30 years ago; however, when she came to the hospital for diabetes diagnosis 2 years ago, she had no accompanying symptoms and refused evaluation. Three months before her visit, her dysphagia and dyspnea worsened as the size of her goiter increased rapidly. A neck ultrasound and enhanced thyroid computed tomography (CT) examination revealed a 10.9 × 9.2 × 12.8 cm size multi-lobulated mass on the right thyroid gland, leading to a leftward deviation of the trachea. Diagnostic total thyroidectomy was performed, and microscopic findings and immunohistochemical staining results indicated poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma (PDTC) in the right thyroid mass. Mutation analyses for BRAF and the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) promoter was performed. No BRAF gene mutations were detected; however, TERT promoter C228T point mutation was present in the PDTC. The patient underwent radioactive iodine therapy two months after the surgery. At a recent follow-up 4 months postoperatively, she was taking thyroid hormone replacement and remained in a relatively good health with a serum thyroglobulin level of 0.55 ng/ml. Conclusions Thyroid examination of psychiatric patients who develop goiter due to long-term lithium treatment should be monitored regularly, and appropriate investigations and surgery should be performed in a timely manner if the goiter is growing rapidly.

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text., Lithium, a mood stabilizer used in the treatment of bipolar disorder is known for its anti-inflammatory properties with the discussion of its potential use in COVID-19 infection. The SARS-CoV-2 virus causing COVID-19 infection is known to enter the target cells through angiotensin converting enzyme-2 receptors present in abundance in the lung and renal tissue. Recent research supports the evidence for direct renal injury by viral proteins. Here we report two patients with bipolar disorder presenting with lithium toxicity in the presence of COVID-19 infection. Two patients with bipolar disorder, maintaining remission on lithium prophylaxis, presented to the psychiatric emergency with recent-onset fever and altered sensorium. Both the patient’s investigations revealed lithium toxicity, elevated serum creatinine, urea and inflammatory markers. Hypernatremia, hyperkalaemia, and hyperchloremia were seen in one patient. Lithium and other psychotropic medications were stopped immediately, and COVID-19 treatment was initiated. Patient with clinical signs of lithium toxicity, hypernatremia, hyperkalaemia, and hyperchloremia developed ventricular tachycardia. He survived and regained consciousness after 2 weeks of aggressive conservative management. However, another patient died of acute respiratory failure on day 3. Possible direct infection of the kidney by SARS-CoV-2 viral proteins can manifest with acute kidney injury and lithium toxicity among patients on long-term lithium therapy. Health professionals treating COVID-19 infection among individuals on lithium therapy should be aware of the possibility of lithium toxicity in the background of renal injury.

Background: Extracorporeal toxin removal is used for enhanced elimination in severe lithium poisoning. The Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning workgroup provides recommendations on the use of extracorporeal toxin removal in poisoning. Objectives: Our aim was to identify the pattern for using extracorporeal toxin removal in managing lithium poisoning in Hong Kong and compare the outcomes in extracorporeal toxin removal-treated patients and non-extracorporeal toxin removal-treated patients if indicated for treatment as defined by The Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning criteria. Methods: Lithium poisoning presented between year 2009 and 2019 in Hong Kong Poison Information Centre (HKPIC) database was categorized into extracorporeal toxin removal-treated group and non-extracorporeal toxin removal-treated group. Comparative analyses were performed. Results: Among 112 lithium-poisoned patients, 21% were treated with extracorporeal toxin removal. Larger proportion of patients had fulfilled at least one Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning criteria for extracorporeal toxin removal in the extracorporeal toxin removal-treated group (87% vs 18%, p < 0.005). The extracorporeal toxin removal-treat group patients were more commonly presented with impaired consciousness, seizure and dysrhythmia ( p < 0.05). They also got higher admission (3.62 mmol/L vs 2.18 mmol/L, p < 0.05) and peak (4.15 mmol/L vs 2.28 mmol/L, p < 0.05) serum lithium concentrations, as well as a significantly higher serum creatinine concentration upon presentation (263.74 µmol/L vs 98.66 µmol/L, p < 0.05). Extracorporeal toxin removal-treat group patients more frequently had a severe poisoning outcome (91.3% vs 9%, p < 0.05) and developed complications (69.6% vs 13.5%, p < 0.05). Logistic regression identified seizure, peak serum lithium concentration, and serum creatinine concentration upon presentation as risk factors for severe poisoning outcome. In subgroup analysis on patients with at least one indication for extracorporeal toxin removal as defined by Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning criteria, the proportion of severe poisoning remained higher in the extracorporeal toxin removal-treated group (90% vs 43.7%, p < 0.05). Complication rate was not significantly different between the two groups. Conclusion: Clinically severe lithium poisoning patients were treated with extracorporeal toxin removal in Hong Kong. Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning criteria can serve as a reference in considering extracorporeal toxin removal treatment for lithium poisoning patients. Nevertheless, Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning criteria recommend more extracorporeal toxin removal treatment than it was actually done. Lithium poisoning patients with positive Extracorporeal TReatments In Poisoning criteria have been managed without extracorporeal toxin removal. No statistically significant adverse outcome was observed in these cases.

Lithium preparations are psychotropic medicines from the group of mood stabilizers. Their major importance is the treatment of affective disorders, primarily manic phases of bipolar disorder, as well as prevention of its exacerbations and therapy of severe and resistant depressions, they also can prevent suicide. Treatment of bipolar disorders with lithium drugs is based on their ability to inhibit selectively kinase-3-glycogen synthase by competition with magnesium ions. Lithium is an alkali metal, therefore in medicine it is used in the form of salts, mainly carbonate, as well as citrate, succinate, orotate, chloride and lithium sulphate. In addition to psychiatry, lithium and its compounds are used in the production of plastics, organic synthesis, glass blowing industry, pharmaceutical chemistry. Lithium poisoning is often of iatrogenic nature in psychiatric practice. Lithium affects the release of serotonin and receptor sensitivity, and modulates the action of norepinephrine. At present, it is believed that the mechanism of lithium action is associated with inositol depletion in the central nervous system. The neurological symptoms of lithium poisoning include: ataxia, impaired vision, memory loss, dizziness, loss of orientation, convulsive seizures, muscle twitching, stupor and coma. The longer the toxic level of lithium in the blood persists, the greater the likelihood of irreversible changes in the central nervous system. Patient with lithium intoxication must be hospitalized. First aid: sodium chloride and potassium chloride solution per os. It is necessary to measure the concentration of lithium in the blood plasma several times a day. To reduce the concentration of lithium rapidly, it is often effective to administer the physiological solution intravenously at a rate of 150–200 ml per hour. First of all, gastric and intestinal lavage should be done (especially with long-acting drug poisoning). Since gastric juice often has a high concentration of lithium, prolonged aspiration of the stomach is indicated. Pathogenetic treatment to be carried out in epileptic seizures, central nervous system depression, arterial hypotension and arrhythmias. The most effective method is hemodialysis. However, it should be noted that objectively positive changes in lithium therapy (if it is successful) far exceed the negative impact of possible side effects.

Lithium carbonate is used to increase white blood cell counts as a means of counteracting leukopenia caused by the administration of antipsychotic drugs. To evaluate the effect of antipsychotics on the leukocyte‐enhancing effect of lithium, we compared white blood cell counts, serum lithium levels, and lithium dosage in patients receiving antipsychotics and lithium in combination and patients receiving lithium alone. Chlorpromazine equivalent values were used as an indicator of the antipsychotic dose. Lithium serum levels were measured in 41 hospitalized patients. The lithium dose in the combination group (median, 800 mg) was significantly higher than that in group receiving only lithium (median, 400 mg) (P = 0.03). The lithium doses in the combination group receiving ≥1000 mg chlorpromazine equivalents (overdosing; median lithium dose 800 mg) and the combination group treated with 600‐999 mg chlorpromazine equivalents (high dosing; median lithium dose 800 mg) were significantly higher than the group that was not treated with antipsychotic medication, with median lithium dose 400 mg (P, Effect of chlorpromazine equivalent dose on lithium carbonate dose, serum lithium concentration, and white blood cell count. The lithium doses in the combination group receiving ≥1000 mg chlorpromazine equivalents (overdosing; median lithium dose 800 mg) and the combination group treated with 600‐999 mg chlorpromazine equivalents (high dosing; median lithium dose 800 mg) were significantly higher than the group that was not treated with antipsychotic medication, with median lithium dose 400 mg (P

Lithium is a first-line treatment for bipolar disorder, where it acts as a mood-stabilizing agent. Although its precise mechanism remains unclear, neuroimaging studies have shown that lithium accumulates in the hippocampus and that chronic use amongst bipolar disorder patients is associated with larger hippocampal volumes. Here, we tested the chronic effects of low (0.75 mM) and high (2.25 mM) doses of lithium on human hippocampal progenitor cells and used immunocytochemistry to investigate the effects of lithium on cell parameters implicated in neurogenesis. Corresponding RNA-sequencing and gene-set enrichment analyses were used to evaluate whether genes affected by lithium in our model overlap with those regulating the volume of specific layers of the dentate gyrus. We observed that high-dose lithium treatment in human hippocampal progenitors increased the generation of neuroblasts (P ≤ 0.01), neurons (P ≤ 0.01), and glia (P ≤ 0.001), alongside the expression of genes, which regulate the volume of the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus. This study provides empirical support that adult hippocampal neurogenesis and gliogenesis are mechanisms that could contribute to the effects of lithium on human hippocampal volume.

Background Lithium is widely used in the treatment of bipolar disorders and may lead to nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI), following long-term treatment. Metformin is considered the preferred initial therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). Objectives To investigate the protective effect of metformin on the kidney damage caused by lithium administration. Material and methods Using an animal model of chronic lithium-induced NDI, rats were divided into 4 groups: sham, metformin, lithium, and lithium + metformin. The effects of these treatments were examined using serum electrolytes, blood and tissue total antioxidant status, total oxidant status, the oxidative stress index, urine and blood osmolality, and tissue aquaporin-2 (AQP2) levels. Additionally, histopathological changes, including congestion, hydropic swelling, tubular necrosis, tubular atrophy, and Bowman's capsule dilatation, were evaluated. The total histopathological score was obtained by summing the scores for each pathological finding. Results In the lithium group, biochemical variables indicating NDI, including sodium, chloride and blood osmolality, increased, and urine osmolality decreased, compared to the sham group. With metformin treatment, the blood osmolality decreased from 328.17 mOsm/kg to 306.33 mOsm/kg, and urine osmolality increased from 349.67 mOsm/kg to 754.50 mOsm/kg (p = 0.004 and p = 0.001, respectively). Tissue AQP2 levels decreased with lithium administration but stabilized with metformin treatment. Additionally, in comparison to the lithium group, the total histopathological score in the metformin group declined from 8.0 to 2.0 (p = 0.002). Conclusions Metformin may help protect the kidneys from lithium-induced NDI through the AQP2 regulating effect and a reduction in oxidative stress.

Many psychiatric disorders, including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and alcohol use disorder, are characterized by an increased suicidal risk. Successful treatment of mental disorders with the use of antidepressants, antipsychotics, and mood stabilizers can reduce the risk of associated suicidality: suicidal thoughts, suicide attempts, and completed suicides. Clozapine and lithium have an outstanding ability to reduce the probability of suicide, and their common property, which determines (along with other pharmacological effects) their antisuicidal potential, is the reduction of impulsivity and aggression. In addition to significant antisuicidal activity, clozapine and lithium are characterized by both an advantage in overall clinical efficacy over other drugs of their classes, and significant risk of side effects, as well as complications of therapy.

Background:. Accumulating evidence suggests that lithium influences mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) proliferation and osteogenic differentiation. As decreased bone formation in femoral heads is induced by glucocorticoids (GCs), we hypothesized that lithium has a protective effect on GC-induced osteonecrosis of femoral heads (ONFH). Methods:. A rat ONFH model was induced by methylprednisolone (MP) and the effect of lithium chloride on the models was evaluated. Micro-computed tomography (CT)-based angiography and bone scanning were performed to analyze the vessels and bone structure in the femoral heads. Hematoxylin and eosin and immunohistochemical staining were performed to evaluate the trabecular structure and osteocalcin (OCN) expression, respectively. Bone marrow-derived MSCs were isolated from the models, and their proliferative and osteogenic ability was evaluated. Western blotting and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were performed to detect osteogenic-related proteins including Runx2, alkaline phosphatase, and Collagen I. Results:. Micro-CT analysis showed a high degree of osteonecrotic changes in the rats that received only MP injection. Treatment with lithium reduced this significantly in rats that received lithium (MP + Li group); while 18/20 of the femoral heads in the MP showed severe osteonecrosis, only 5/20 in the MP + Li showed mild osteonecrotic changes. The MP + Li group also displayed a higher vessel volume than the MP group (0.2193 mm3vs. 0.0811 mm3, P

Lithium is one of the first-line agents for treating bipolar disorder. Although this agent is highly effective in treating mood disorders, renal toxicity is a frequent side effect. Lithium metabolism is affected by sodium-lithium counter-transporter (SLC-T) in erythrocytes. The high activity of SLC-T can result in decreased urinary lithium clearance and may lead to accumulation of lithium in the distal renal tubular cells, causing lithium toxicity. SLC-T is a genetic marker in primary hypertension (HTN), HTN in pregnancy, diabetic nephropathy, and IgA nephropathy (IgA-N) with HTN. Patients with IgA-N have been reported to have enhanced SLC-T activity and are likely to have considerably lower renal fractional clearance of lithium. Therefore, patients taking lithium for bipolar disorder with coexisting IgA-N can have severe lithium-induced nephropathy and nephrotoxicity even at therapeutic serum levels. Serum lithium levels reflect only extracellular lithium concentration. However, lithium exerts its effects once it has moved to the intracellular compartment. This phenomenon illustrates the reason why patients with significantly elevated serum levels might be asymptomatic. Creatinine clearance is inversely related to the duration of lithium therapy. The degree of interstitial fibrosis on renal biopsy has been known to be associated with the duration of lithium therapy and cumulative dose. We present a case with a past medical history of bipolar disorder treated with lithium for almost 20 years. His family history was significant for HTN. The patient was diagnosed with renal insufficiency of unknown causes, for which he underwent renal biopsy. The renal biopsy showed a typical lithium-induced tubulointerstitial nephritis and a coincidental finding of IgA-N. We suspect a high activity of SLC-T seen in IgA-N, and the adverse effects of lithium on SLC-T activity might cause reduction of urinary lithium clearance and accumulation of lithium in distal renal tubular cells, contributing to nephrotoxicity. There is a lack of the literature on the coexistence of IgA-N and lithium nephrotoxicity. We recommend in patients with concomitant IgA-N, taking lithium, more frequent monitoring of renal functions, and dose adjustments may reduce the risk of lithium-induced nephrotoxicity.

Lithium is used in the treatment of bipolar disorder. We previously demonstrated that two types of transporters mediate the tubular reabsorption of lithium in rats, and suggested that sodium-dependent phosphate transporters play a role in lithium reabsorption with high affinity. In the present study, we examined sex differences in lithium reabsorption in rats. When lithium chloride was infused at 60 µg/min, creatinine clearance and the renal clearance of lithium were lower, and the plasma concentration of lithium was higher in female rats. These values reflected the higher fractional reabsorption of lithium in female rats. In rats infused with lithium chloride at 6 µg/min, the pharmacokinetic parameters of lithium examined were all similar in both sexes. The fractional reabsorption of lithium was decreased by foscarnet, a representative inhibitor of sodium-dependent phosphate transporters, in male and female rats when lithium chloride was infused at the low rate. Among the candidate transporters mediating lithium reabsorption examined herein, the mRNA expression of only PiT2, a sodium-dependent phosphate transporter, exhibited sexual dimorphism. The present results demonstrated sex differences in the tubular reabsorption of lithium with low affinity in rats.

Objectives Lithium exerts a broad neuroprotective effect on the brain. This study examined whether lithium exerts therapeutic effects on stroke by restoring neural connections at the ischemic core of cortices post brain insult. Methods We treated rats with lithium or vehicle (saline) every 24 h for the first 72 h, starting at the beginning of reperfusion after inducing middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats. Somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) recording and behavioral testing were employed to evaluate the beneficial effects of lithium treatment. To examine the effects of lithium-induced neuroplasticity, we evaluated the dendritic morphology in cortex pyramidal cells and the primary neuronal cell culture that underwent brain insults and oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD), respectively. Results The results demonstrated that rats subjected to MCAO had prolonged N1 latency and a decreased N1/P1 amplitude at the ipsilateral cortex. Four doses of lithium reduced the brain infarction volume and enhanced the SSEP amplitude. The results of neurobehavioral tests demonstrated that lithium treatment improved sensory function, as demonstrated by improved 28-point clinical scale scores. In vitro study results showed that lithium treatment increased the dendritic lengths and branches of cultured neurons and reversed the suppressive effects of OGD. The in vivo study results indicated that lithium treatment increased cortical spine density in various layers and resulted in the development of the dendritic structure in the contralateral hemisphere. Conclusion Our study confirmed that neuroplasticity in cortical neurons is crucial for lithium-induced brain function 50 recovery after brain ischemia.

Objectives:Bipolar disorder (BD) may be connected with accelerated aging, the marker of this can be shorter telomere length (TL). Some data suggest that lithium may exert a protective effect against telomere shortening. The study aimed to compare the TL between patients with BD and control subjects. The effect of long-term lithium treatment was also assessed.Methods:The study group comprised 41 patients with BD, including 29 patients treated longitudinally with lithium (mean 16.5 years) and 20 healthy people. TL was assessed by the quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR).Results:In the control group, the TL was significantly longer in males than in females. Male bipolar patients had significantly shorter TL compared with the control male group. In bipolar patients, there was no correlation between TL and duration of treatment. The TL was negatively correlated with age in male bipolar patients.Conclusions:The study did not confirm the lithium effect on TL in bipolar patients. TL showed gender differences, being shorter in BD males, compared to control males, and longer in healthy males, compared to control females.

Lithium (Li+) is a first option treatment for adult acute episodes of Bipolar Disorder (BD) and for the prophylaxis of new depressed or manic episodes. It is also the preferred choice as maintenance treatment. Numerous studies have shown morphological abnormalities in the brains of BD patients, suggesting that this highly heritable disorder may exhibit progressive and deleterious changes in brain structure. Since treatment with Li+ ameliorates these abnormalities, it has been postulated that Li+ is a neuroprotective agent in the same way atypical antipsychotics are neuroprotective in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Li+'s neuroprotective properties are related to its modulation of nerve growth factors, inflammation, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and programmed cell death mechanisms such as autophagy and apoptosis. Notwithstanding, it is not known whether Li+-induced neuroprotection is related to the inhibition of its putative molecular targets in a BD episode: the enzymes inositol-monophosphatase, (IMPase), glycogen-synthase-kinase 3β (GSK3), and Protein kinase C (PKC). Furthermore, it is uncertain whether these neuroprotective mechanisms are correlated with Li+'s clinical efficacy in maintaining mood stability. It is expected that in a nearby future, precision medicine approaches will improve diagnosis and expand treatment options. This will certainly contribute to ameliorating the medical and economic burden created by this devastating mood disorder.

The diagnosis and treatment of bipolar depression (BDep) poses complex clinical challenges for psychiatry. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) is a useful imaging tool for investigating in vivo levels of brain neuro-metabolites, critical to understanding the process of mood dysregulation in Bipolar Disorder. Few studies have evaluated longitudinal clinical outcomes in BDep associated with 1H-MRS metabolic changes. This study aimed to longitudinally assess brain 1H-MRS metabolites in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) correlated with improvement in depression (from BDep to euthymia) after lithium treatment in BDep patients versus matched healthy controls (HC). Twenty-eight medication-free BDep patients and 28 HC, matched for age and gender, were included in this study. All subjects were submitted to a 3-Tesla brain 1H-MRS scan in the ACC using a single-voxel (8cm3) PRESS sequence at baseline. At follow-up (6 weeks), 14 BDep patients repeated the exam in euthymia. Patients with current BDep had higher baseline Myo-inositol/Cr (mI/Cr) and Choline/Cr (Cho/Cr) compared to HC. After six weeks, mI/Cr or Cho/Cr levels in subjects that achieved euthymia no longer differed to levels in HC, while high Cho/Cr levels persisted in non-responders . Elevated ACC mI/Cr and Cho/Cr in BDep might indicate increased abnormal membrane phospholipid metabolism and phosphatidylinositol (PI) cycle activity. Return of mI/Cr and Cho/Cr to normal levels after lithium-induced euthymia suggests a critical regulatory effect of lithium targeting the PI cycle involved in mood regulation.

Several neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychiatric disorders display aberrant posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of one, or many, proteins. Lithium treatment has been used for mood stabilization for many decades, and is highly effective for large subsets of patients with diverse neurological conditions. However, the differential effectiveness and mode of action are not fully understood. In recent years, studies have shown that lithium alters several protein PTMs, altering their function, and consequently neuronal physiology. The impetus for this review is to outline the links between lithium's therapeutic mode of action and PTM homeostasis. We first provide an overview of the principal PTMs affected by lithium. We then describe several neuropsychiatric disorders in which PTMs have been implicated as pathogenic. For each of these conditions, we discuss lithium's clinical use and explore the putative mechanism of how it restores PTM homeostasis, and thereby cellular physiology. Evidence suggests that determining specific PTM patterns could be a promising strategy to develop biomarkers for disease and lithium responsiveness.

Background Disorders of mental health are major risk factors for suicidal behavior and require adequate treatment. However, the effect of psychotropic medication on suicidal behavior is unclear. Methods The 120 participants in a randomized clinical trial of a brief therapy for suicide attempters (Attempted Suicide Short Intervention Program, ASSIP) reported on repeated suicide attempts, suicidal ideation, depression, and medication in the treatment as usual (TAU), at baseline, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months follow-up. The RCT had no influence on medication prescribed. Drugs prescribed were categorized as any psychotropic, antidepressants plus lithium, and antipsychotics. To assess the effect of long-term medication we identified participants with periods of continuous use of psychotropics and antidepressants plus lithium over twelve months or more, and medication-free participants for the same drug categories during the same time period. Results Reattempts and suicide ideation decreased in all drug categories. When comparing participants on medication fulfilling the definition of long-term use with participants without medication, reattempts and suicidal ideation were higher in the psychotropics and the antidepressants/lithium groups. These drug categories were associated with higher depression scores in comparison to no-medication. The survival analysis revealed a higher risk of reattempts in the long-term antidepressants/lithium group in comparison to no-medication. Treatment with the brief psychological therapy ASSIP, added to medication, was associated with a lower risk of reattempts. Limitations The study relied on the patients’ reports on treatment as usual in a randomized controlled clinical trial. Blood levels of the psychotropic compounds were not assessed. Conclusions In this observational study of the TAU condition in a clinical trial of a brief psychological therapy for patients who had recently attempted suicide, psychotropic drug use over twelve months or more was not associated with reduced suicide ideation and reattempts. Depression scores suggest that patients on psychotropic medication had more psychiatric pathology. This may be a confounding factor for the effect of medication on suicidal behavior.

Bipolar disorder often follows a set progression best described in stages where advanced stages are associated with poorer outcomes. Bipolar disorder is also often characterized by a predominance of episode polarity, where some individuals experience more depressive episodes (termed predominant depressive polarity) while others experience more hypo/manic episodes (termed predominant hypo/manic polarity). We examined the associations between staging and predominant polarity with measures of illness burden and treatment outcome utilizing data from a six-month comparative effectiveness trial of lithium and quetiapine in bipolar disorder (Bipolar CHOICE). We used number of self-reported lifetime mood (depressive and hypo/manic) episodes as a proxy for staging and ratio of depressive to manic episodes to define predominant polarity. Polarity and staging were correlated with several measures of burden of illness. Childhood abuse was correlated with more lifetime mood episodes, while more depressive episodes and depressive polarity were correlated with more anxiety disorder comorbidity. Depressive polarity was also correlated with more past trials of psychotropics, particularly antidepressants. However, neither staging nor predominant polarity moderated the randomized treatment effect of lithium vs. quetiapine. Number of depressive episodes in the past year was identified as a potential predictor of overall worse treatment outcome, regardless of medication condition. In conclusion, though staging and predominant episode polarity correlated with several measures of illness burden, they were not associated with differential treatment outcomes. This could be because many of our patients presented for treatment at advanced stages of illness and further highlights the need for early intervention in bipolar disorder.

In the present study, the perinatal oral exposure of pregnant mice to 15 and 30mg/kg lithium (lithium chloride) in their drinking water resulted in a significant and dose-dependent reduction in postnatal body weight gain, delays in opening of the eyes and appearance in the body hair fuzz, and deficits in the sensory motor reflexes of the mice pups during weaning period (from the day of birth to postnatal day21). At adolescent and adult ages of the male offspring, a significant and dose-dependent deficit was also observed in their learning capability (at PD25), and cognitive behavior (at PD30-36). Furthermore, a significant and dose-dependent disturbance in the levels of neurotransmitters like dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT); non-enzymatic oxidative stress (OS) indices like thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) and total reduced glutathione (GSH); and enzymatic OS indices like glutathione S-transferase (GST), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were observed in the forebrain region of the offspring at post-natal day (PD)7, PD14, PD21, PD30, and PD36. Thus, perinatal lithium exposure can affect the in utero developing fetus, raising the concerns for a potential neurotoxic hazards and a longer lasting cognitive dysfunction. A reduced use of lithium during pregnancy is of crucial importance in preventing lithium -induced neurotoxicity in the offspring.

BackgroundThe association of the Val66Met (rs6265) polymorphism in the brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene with bipolar disorder (BD) and response to lithium treatment has been suggested, though inconsistently. The considerable diversity of allele frequency across different populations contributes to this. There is no data from South Asia till date. Hence, we examined the association of this polymorphism in BD cases from India, and its correlation with lithium treatment response.MethodsBD patients (N=301) were recruited from the clinical services of National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), India. Lithium treatment response for 190 BD subjects was assessed using Alda scale by NIMH life charts. Patients with total score ≥ 7 were defined as lithium responders (N=115) and patients with score ResultsGenotype and allele frequency of BDNF Val66Met SNP was significantly different (χ2 = 7.78, p=0.02) in cases compared to controls, and the Val(G) allele was more frequent (χ2 = 7.08, p=0.008) in BD patients. Although there was trend towards significance for greater occurrence of Val(G) allele among lithium non-responders, this difference did not persist in an analysis of extreme response groups.ConclusionsThe Val(G) allele of BDNF Val66Met polymorphism is associated with risk of BD in this sample, but is not related to response to lithium.

Background: Lithium has been used for decades as mood-stabilizing agents in the management of bipolar disorder and other condition with a manic component. However, some studies have also reported varying degrees of thyroid abnormalities associated with lithium therapy and effect of such therapy on thyroid function is unclear in this part of world. Therefore, we aimed to determine the effect of long term use of lithium on thyroidfunctionin the individual with bipolar disorder receiving lithium therapy. Methods: A total of 75 bipolar disorder patients (24 males, 51 females) who are under lithium therapy and equal number of control were recruited for this study. Diagnosis of bipolar disorder was made by psychiatrist according to ICD-10-DCR guidelines and DSM-IV criteria. Serum fT3, fT4 and TSH were measured by enhanced chemiluminescence immunoassay. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 20.0 version. Results: The prevalence of primary hypothyroidism and subclinical hypothyroidism were found significantly increased in lithium treated group (12% and 17%, respectively) which was further increased with duration of treatment. The mean fT3 and fT4 concentration is low in lithium treated group compared to control group.Butmean TSH level was found significantlyhigher in lithium treated group compared to control (9.67±12.47 vs. 3.41±3.69, p

The aim of this study was to compare treatment adherence and tolerability of different lithium formulations in 70 bipolar patients receiving lithium therapy for the first time. During the 1-year follow-up, information was collected regarding patient's clinical course, therapeutic adherence, side effects of the treatment and serum levels of lithium, creatinine and thyroid-stimulating hormone. At baseline, 30 patients (43%) were on prolonged-release lithium formulations and 40 (57%) on immediate-release formulations. At the final evaluation, 37 patients (53%) were considered lost to follow-up. Both prolonged- and immediate-release patients showed significant improvement in the Functioning Assessment Short Test and in the Clinical Global Impressions for Bipolar Disorder scores during the follow-up. At the first follow-up visit, the mean plasma lithium level of prolonged-release patients was higher than immediate-release patients (0.61 vs. 0.47, respectively; P = 0.063), as well as the therapeutic adherence (85 vs. 64%, respectively; P = 0.089). Fine tremor and gastrointestinal symptoms were more frequent in immediate-release patients than in prolonged-release patients at each follow-up visit, with the sole exception of gastrointestinal symptoms at the last evaluation. Prolonged-release lithium therapy could provide potential advantages over immediate-release formulations. Future naturalistic studies and clinical trials with a longer follow-up duration are needed.

Alterations in prolyl oligopeptidase (PREP) activity have been connected, for example, with bipolar and major depressive disorder, and several studies have reported that lack or inhibition of PREP blocks the effects of lithium on inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) levels. However, the impact of PREP modulation on other intracellular targets of lithium, such as glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3b) or protein kinase B (Akt), has not been studied. We recently found that PREP regulates protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), and because GSK3b and Akt are PP2A substrates, we studied if PREP-related lithium insensitivity is dependent on PP2A. To assess this, HEK-293 and SH-SY5Y cells with PREP deletion or PREP inhibition (KYP-2047) were exposed to lithium, and thereafter, the phosphorylation levels of GSK3b and Akt were measured by Western blot. As expected, PREP deletion and inhibition blocked the lithium-induced phosphorylation on GSK3b and Akt in both cell lines. When lithium exposure was combined with okadaic acid, a PP2A inhibitor, KYP-2047 did not have effect on lithium-induced GSK3b and Akt phosphorylation. Therefore, we conclude that PREP deletion or inhibition blocks the intracellular effects of lithium on GSK3b and Akt via PP2A activation.

Susac-syndrome is a rare autoimmune disease that manifests with mood alterations in up to 15% of cases and is usually treated with corticosteroids. We present the case of a 41-year-old woman with a first manic episode and history of Susac-syndrome, secondary Cushing's syndrome after receiving high doses of corticosteroids and a previous depressive episode. Differentiating between primary and secondary mania is difficult, as people with bipolar disorder are prone to multiple psychiatric and nonpsychiatric comorbidities, in this case, the differential diagnosis included secondary mania, corticoid-induced manic episode and primary bipolar disorder. Upon admission, corticosteroid treatment was suspended, and the patient was started on lithium and risperidone. Secondary causes of mania were discarded and, assessing temporal and dosage criteria, it was deemed unlikely that the present episode was corticosteroid-induced. One-year outpatient follow-up pointed towards a primary bipolar type I disorder, as a separate entity from her Susac-syndrome. Corticosteroid use or abrupt withdrawal pose an underestimated risk of inducing depressive or manic symptoms, which may unmask affective disorders in susceptible individuals. Many medical conditions share CNS involvement and/or high-dose/prolonged corticosteroid treatment. In such cases, psychiatric manifestations such as mania or depression should be regarded as secondary and studied to determine the existence of medical complications before considering primary psychiatric conditions.

We examined bipolar disorder (BD) as a risk factor for developing cancer and the role of lithium on cancer incidence. We conducted two systematic review and meta-analyses of population-based studies providing data on these associations. We screened articles indexed in MEDLINE, Scopus, Embase, and PsycINFO up to August 2020. The first random-effects meta-analysis, based on 4,910,661 individuals from nine studies estimated an increased risk of cancer of any kind [RR = 1.24 (1.05-1.46); p < 0.01], especially breast cancer [RR = 1.33 (1.15-1.55); p < 0.01] in BD. The second random-effects meta-analysis, based on 2,606,187 individuals from five studies did not show increased risk of cancer in people with BD using lithium, and even suggested a small protective effect both in overall [RR = 0.94 (0.72-1.22); p = 0.66] and urinary cancer [RR = 0.93 (0.75-1.14); p = 0.48] although these findings did not reach statistical significance. The current evidence highlights that cancer risk is increased in individuals with BD, particularly breast cancer in women. Lithium may have a potential protective effect on cancer, including urinary cancer. The role of lithium as a mainstay of treatment for BD is reinforced by this study.

Lithium (Li+) is the first-line therapy for bipolar disorder and a candidate drug for various diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. Despite being the captivating subject of many studies, the mechanism of lithium's therapeutic action remains unclear. To date, it has been shown that Li+ competes with Mg2+ and Na+ to normalize the activity of inositol and neurotransmitter-related signaling proteins, respectively. Furthermore, Li+ may co-bind with Mg2+-loaded adenosine or guanosine triphosphate to alter the complex's susceptibility to hydrolysis and mediate cellular signaling. Bipolar disorder patients exhibit abnormally high cytosolic Ca2+ levels and protein kinase C (PKC) hyperactivity that can be downregulated by long-term Li+ treatment. However, the possibility that monovalent Li+ could displace the bulkier divalent Ca2+ and inhibit PKC activity has not been considered. Here, using density functional theory calculations combined with continuum dielectric methods, we show that Li+ may displace the native dication from the positively charged trinuclear site in the C2 domain of cytosolic PKCα/γ. This would affect the membrane-docking ability of cytosolic PKCα/γ and reduce the abnormally high membrane-associated active PKCα/γ levels, thus downregulating the PKC hyperactivity found in bipolar patients.

In rats, lisdexamfetamine (LDX) induces manic-like behaviors such as hyperlocomotion and increases in appetitive 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USV), which are prevented by antimanic drugs, such as lithium. Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) and antioxidant activity have been associated with antimanic effects. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the possible antimanic-like effects of andrographolide (ANDRO), a GSK3β inhibitor, on LDX-induced hyperlocomotion and 50-kHz USV increases. In addition, the effect of ANDRO was studied on LDX-induced oxidative stress. Lithium was used as positive control. Adult Wistar rats were treated with vehicle, lithium (100 mg/kg i.p., daily) or ANDRO (2 mg/kg i.p., 3 times a week) for 21 days. On the test day, either 10 mg/kg LDX or saline was administered i.p. and USV and locomotor activity were recorded. LDX administration increased the number of 50-kHz calls, as well as locomotor activity. Repeated treatment with lithium or ANDRO prevented these effects of LDX on 50-kHz USV and locomotor activity. LDX increased lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels in rat striatum and both lithium and ANDRO prevented this effect. LPO levels in rat striatum were positively correlated with increases in 50-kHz USV emission as well as hyperlocomotion. In conclusion, the present results indicate that ANDRO has antimanic-like effects, which may be mediated by its antioxidant properties.

Введение. Нарушения параметров красной крови при алкоголизме, развитие окислительного стресса с увеличением продуктов окислительной модификации биомолекул обусловливают актуальность поиска защитных средств эритроцитов от токсического воздействия этанола. Перспективными для такого поиска могут быть соли лития, учитывая применение препаратов лития в качестве нормотимиков для лечения расстройств аффективного спектра. Цель исследования - изучение показателей красной крови, факторов окислительного стресса у больных алкоголизмом и оценка защитного потенциала солей лития (аскорбата, сукцината, пирувата, фумарата и карбоната) от токсического действия этанола на эритроциты. Методика. Материалом для исследования служили образцы крови 59 мужчин больных алкоголизмом и 38 здоровых мужчин (контроль). Гематологический анализ крови осуществляли на гематологическом анализаторе Micros 60. В плазме крови определяли показатели окислительного повреждения белков (по уровню карбонилированных белков) и перекисного окисления липидов (по уровню ТБК-реактивных продуктов) спектрофотометрическим методом. Мембранопротекторный эффект солей лития оценивали в опытах in vitro по степени гемолиза эритроцитов при действии этанола в присутствии солей лития в концентрации 1,2 ммоль/л в расчете на ион лития. Результаты. У больных алкоголизмом установлено повышение среднего объема эритроцитов (MCV) и снижение параметров остальных показателей красной крови. Концентрации карбонилированных белков и ТБК-реактивных продуктов в плазме крови пациентов превышали контрольные значения. Соли лития (фумарат, пируват и аскорбат) в 1,5-1,7 раз повышали устойчивость эритроцитов к гемолизу, индуцированному этанолом. Карбонат лития такого эффекта не оказывал. Заключение. У больных алкоголизмом обнаружены существенные повреждения эритроцитов и макромолекул плазмы крови. Фумарат, пируват и аскорбат лития демонстрировали высокий мембранопротекторный эффект, повышая устойчивость эритроцитов к токсическому действию этанола. Данные соли лития расширяют арсенал мембранопротекторных соединений, что в сочетании с нормотимическим действием лития позволяет использовать их для разработки импортозамещающих лекарственных средств лечения расстройств аффективного спектра. Introduction. In alcoholism, red blood variables are altered, and oxidative stress, along with an increase in the oxidative modification of biomolecules products, occurs. These effects have stimulated the search for agents to protect red blood cells against the toxic effects of ethanol. Lithium salts may be promising in this regard, since lithium preparations are used as normothymics for treating affective spectrum disorders. The aim of this study was to investigate red blood indexes, factors of oxidative stress in patients with alcoholism and to assess the protective potential of the lithium salts, ascorbate, succinate, pyruvate, fumarate and carbonate, against the toxic effect of ethanol on red blood cells. Methods. Blood samples were collected from 59 alcoholic men and 38 healthy men. Hematological analysis was performed with a Micros 60 hematological analyzer. In plasma, oxidative damage of proteins was determined by the amount of carbonylated proteins (CP), and lipid peroxidation was determined by the amount of TBA-reactive substances (TBARS), as measured spectrophotometrically. The membrane-protective effect of lithium salts was evaluated in vitro by the degree of hemolysis of red blood cells treated with ethanol in the presence of lithium salts at a concentration of 1.2 mmol/l lithium ion. Results. In alcoholic patients, compared with normal patients, an increase in the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and a decrease in all other red cell variables were found. Concentrations of CP and TBARS in plasma exceeded normal values. The lithium salts, fumarate, pyruvate, and ascorbate, elevated the resistance of red blood cells to ethanol-induced hemolysis by 1.5-1.7 times. Lithium carbonate had no effect. Conclusion. Significant damage to red blood cells and plasma macromolecules was found in alcoholic patients. Lithium fumarate, pyruvate and ascorbate had a large membrane-protective effect. Thus, these salts increased the resistance of red blood cells to the toxic effects of ethanol. These salts expand the arsenal of membrane-protective compounds, which in combination with the normothymic effect of lithium, will allow them to be used in developing drugs for treatment of affective spectrum disorders.

Background Lithium is a first-line pharmacotherapy for the treatment of bipolar disorder, but long-term use is associated with nephrotoxicity. However, as dialysis effectively eliminates lithium, it remains a pharmacotherapeutic option for patients on dialysis. This systematic review seeks to evaluate the dosing, safety, efficacy, and monitoring of lithium in patients receiving dialysis. Method A PubMed database search performed May 5th, 2020, identified 535 article titles. After exclusion criteria were applied, a total of 15 articles were included in this systematic review. Results In 18 patients receiving dialysis, lithium was primarily used for the treatment of mood disorders. The majority of patients received 300–900 mg lithium carbonate thrice-weekly following dialysis, but several alternative lithium salts and dosing strategies were utilized. The pharmacokinetic properties of lithium in dialysis are not well understood and can be complicated by a serum lithium “rebound effect” following dialysis, due to a two-compartment volume of distribution. Additionally, presence of residual diuresis in some patients may be reason to administer lithium more frequently than thrice-weekly following dialysis. Lithium was shown to be an effective pharmacotherapy in all patients, with many demonstrating rapid improvement after drug initiation. Five patients experienced an adverse event on lithium, but only one patient required lithium discontinuation. Conclusion Lithium may be used in patients on dialysis, with close monitoring of pre-dialysis serum lithium concentrations for at least two weeks after treatment initiation, followed by a lower frequency after stabilization to ensure therapeutic concentrations and reduce toxicity risk.

A comparative study of the effects of an inorganic lithium salt (lithium carbonate) and an organic lithium salt (lithium ascorbate) on a model of alloxan diabetes mellitus was conducted. The use of lithium ascorbate for a month in experimental alloxan diabetes mellitus facilitates its course – the survival rate of animals increases, the level of glycemia decreases (especially when administered at a dose of 10 mg/kg). Morphometric analysis showed that lithium ascorbate in alloxan diabetes has a neuroprotective effect, which is manifested in a decrease in toxic damage to neurocytes with an increase in the number of cells with reversible changes and intact neurons. Lithium carbonate at doses of 5 and 10 mg / kg was not effective.

Continuous social isolation (SI) from an early developmental stage may have different effects in youth and adulthood. Moreover, SI is reported to impair neuronal plasticity. In this study, we used post-weaning rats to compare the impact of continuous SI on depressive-like, anxiety-related, and fear-related behaviors and neuronal plasticity in puberty and adulthood. Furthermore, we assessed the effect of lithium on behavioral changes and neuronal plasticity. Continuous SI after weaning induced depressive-like behaviors in puberty; however, in adulthood, depressive-like and anxiety-related behaviors did not increase, but—paradoxically—decreased in comparison with the controls. The decreased expression of neuronal plasticity-related proteins in the hippocampus in puberty was more prominent in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in adulthood. In contrast, SI after weaning tended to decrease fear-related behaviors in puberty, a decrease which was more prominent in adulthood with increased neuronal plasticity-related protein expression in the amygdala. Lithium administration over the last 14 days of the SI-induced period removed the behavioral and expression changes of neuronal plasticity-related proteins observed in puberty and adulthood. Our findings suggest that the extension of the duration of SI from an early developmental stage does not simply worsen depressive-like behaviors; rather, it induces a behavior linked to neuronal plasticity damage. Lithium may improve behavioral changes in puberty and adulthood by reversing damage to neuronal plasticity. The mechanisms underlying the depressive-like and anxiety-related behaviors may differ from those underlying fear-related behaviors.

OBJECTIVE Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective acute treatment for severe and/or medication-resistant depression but maintaining remission following completion of a course remains a clinical challenge. METHODS EFFECT-Dep Trial (ISRCTN23577151) participants with a DSM-IV major depressive episode who met remission criteria after a randomly assigned course of twice-weekly brief-pulse bitemporal (1.5 × seizure threshold) or high-dose (6 × seizure threshold) right unilateral ECT were monitored for relapse for 12 months. In line with the pragmatic trial design, all patients received treatment-as-usual individualised pharmacotherapy during and after ECT; no remitter received continuation ECT. RESULTS Of 61 remitters, 24 (39.3%) relapsed, one (1.6%) withdrew from the study while in remission and the remaining 36 (59.0%) stayed well for a year. Most relapses occurred within the first six months, resulting in a cumulative six-month relapse rate of 31.1%. In a multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model, older age (p = 0.039) and psychotic features at pre-ECT baseline (p = 0.037) were associated with a more favourable long-term prognosis while a greater number of previous depressive episodes (p = 0.028) and bipolar II (but not bipolar I) diagnosis (p = 0.030) were associated with a worse long-term outcome. Electrode placement and medication resistance prior to ECT had no effect on relapse. Adjusting for covariates, fewer patients treated with lithium relapsed in the overall group (p = 0.008) and in the unipolar depression subgroup (p = 0.027). CONCLUSION Long-term outcome following high-dose right unilateral ECT does not differ from bitemporal ECT. Prognosis is particularly favourable in older adults, psychotic depression and patients maintained on lithium.

Background: Recently, numerous large clinical trials have been performed to evaluate the effectiveness and tolerability of extended-release formulations of carbamazepine in bipolar disorder. Objective: In the current study, we compared lithium with a prolonged-release form of carbamazepine (Tegretol CR) to evaluate its efficiency and safety in a group of patients with a diagnosis of acute mania. Methods: Fifty patients with the diagnosis of acute mania were selected for a three-week, doubleblind study, and were randomly administered lithium carbonate or tegretol CR. The main outcome measured in the present evaluation was the Manic State Rating Scale (MSRS), which was scored at baseline and weekly intervals up to the third week. Moreover, insight and overall illness severity and improvement were assessed using the Schedule for Assessment of Insight (SAI), the Clinical Global Impressions-Global Improvement scale (CGI-I), and the Clinical Global Impressions Severity Scale (CGI-S), respectively. The statistical significance was defined with a p-value ≤0.05, and the treatment efficacy was analyzed by independent samples t-test and repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results: Despite the fact that the mean total score of MSRS improved significantly with respect to both lithium carbonate and tegretol CR at the end of the third week, the between-group analysis showed a significant advantage of lithium, regarding both frequency and intensity of symptoms, at the end of the study. The mean total score of SAI, as well, showed significant improvement caused by both of them. Nevertheless, while the CGI-I demonstrated significant improvement in participants taking lithium and tegretol CR, the CGI-S showed significant progress only with lithium. Besides, Cohen’s effect size analysis showed a large improvement of MSRS by lithium and medium improvement by tegretol CR. Post-hoc power analysis showed an intermediate power of 0.42 on behalf of the current evaluation. Conclusion: While both lithium carbonate and tegretol CR were found to be valuable for the improvement of manic symptoms, management with lithium appears to be more helpful.

Neurotoxic effects are seen in patients using lithium regardless of dose. The neuroprotective activity of metformin used in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus is known. In this study, the protective efficacy of metformin against the neurotoxic effects of lithium was investigated. Neurotoxicity was induced by administering high dose oral lithium (40 mmol/kg) to rats for two weeks. Four groups were formed, with 6 rats in each group. OSI indices were calculated by measuring serum TAS and TOS levels. TAS, TOS, OSI, Gpx ADAM10, and ADAM17 levels were measured in the brain tissue. The neuroprotective activity of metformin was examined histopathologically by calculating the pyknosis scores, vacuolization, and interstitial edema in the hippocampus and cortex tissues. When lithium and metformin were given together, serum levels of TAS, TOS, and OSI were lower than that of the Lithium group (p [Med-Science 2021; 10(2.000): 350-5]

Lithium (Li), valproate (VPA) and lamotrigine (LTG) are commonly used to treat bipolar disorder (BD). While their clinical efficacy is well established, the mechanisms of action at the molecular level are still incompletely understood. Here we investigated the molecular effects of Li, LTG and VPA treatment in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neural precursor cells (NPCs) generated from 3 healthy controls (CTRL), 3 affective disorder Li responsive patients (Li-R) and 3 Li non-treated patients (Li-N) after 6 h and 1 week of exposure. Differential expression (DE) analysis after 6 h of treatment revealed a transcriptional signature that was associated with all three drugs and most significantly enriched for ribosome and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) pathways. In addition to the shared DE genes, we found that Li exposure was associated with 554 genes uniquely regulated in Li-R NPCs and enriched for spliceosome, OXPHOS and thermogenesis pathways. In-depth analysis of the treatment-associated transcripts uncovered a significant decrease in intron retention rate, suggesting that the beneficial influence of these drugs might partly be related to splicing. We examined the mitochondrial respiratory function of the NPCs by exploring the drugs’ effects on oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and glycolytic rate (ECAR). Li improved OCR levels only in Li-R NPCs by enhancing maximal respiration and reserve capacity, while VPA enhanced maximal respiration and reserve capacity in Li-N NPCs. Overall, our findings further support the involvement of mitochondrial functions in the molecular mechanisms of mood stabilizers and suggest novel mechanisms related to the spliceosome, which warrant further investigation.

© 2020, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.Lithium is a first-line medication for bipolar disorder (BD), but only one in three patients respond optimally to the drug. Since evidence shows a strong clinical and genetic overlap between depression and bipolar disorder, we investigated whether a polygenic susceptibility to major depression is associated with response to lithium treatment in patients with BD. Weighted polygenic scores (PGSs) were computed for major depression (MD) at different GWAS p value thresholds using genetic data obtained from 2586 bipolar patients who received lithium treatment and took part in the Consortium on Lithium Genetics (ConLi+Gen) study. Summary statistics from genome-wide association studies in MD (135,458 cases and 344,901 controls) from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (PGC) were used for PGS weighting. Response to lithium treatment was defined by continuous scores and categorical outcome (responders versus non-responders) using measurements on the Alda scale. Associations between PGSs of MD and lithium treatment response were assessed using a linear and binary logistic regression modeling for the continuous and categorical outcomes, respectively. The analysis was performed for the entire cohort, and for European and Asian sub-samples. The PGSs for MD were significantly associated with lithium treatment response in multi-ethnic, European or Asian populations, at various p value thresholds. Bipolar patients with a low polygenic load for MD were more likely to respond well to lithium, compared to those patients with high polygenic load [lowest vs highest PGS quartiles, multi-ethnic sample: OR = 1.54 (95% CI: 1.18–2.01) and European sample: OR = 1.75 (95% CI: 1.30–2.36)]. While our analysis in the Asian sample found equivalent effect size in the same direction: OR = 1.71 (95% CI: 0.61–4.90), this was not statistically significant. Using PGS decile comparison, we found a similar trend of association between a high genetic loading for MD and lower response to lithium. Our findings underscore the genetic contribution to lithium response in BD and support the emerging concept of a lithium-responsive biotype in BD.

Lithium is an effective treatment option for bipolar disorder in children and adolescents; however, the therapeutic window is narrow, and psychiatric, neurological, renal, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and endocrine side effects have been observed during lithium therapy.1 Iatrogenic dysphagia has been reported with psychotropic drugs, benzodiazepines, anti-inflammatory drugs, and some vasoactive drugs.2 However, oropharyngeal dysphagia due to lithium toxicity has not been reported in the literature.