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The woody plant, Colophospermum mopane, occurs as either a shrub or tree in shrublands and woodlands, respectively, in the central Kruger National Park, South Africa. As a first step in identifying which soil properties potentially influence the structure of C. mopane in these landscapes, we investigated the soil chemistry of the pedoderm in shrublands and woodlands. A total of 39 composite pedoderm samples (0–2 cm) were analysed. Relative to the woodlands, the pedoderm of the shrublands had significantly lower mean concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Na, B and C. Of the nutrients analysed, only B had a mean concentration likely to be constraining the growth of plants (0.16 ± 0.01 vs 0.69 ± 0.05 mg B kg−1 in shrublands and woodlands, respectively). We suggest that the C. mopane shrubs do not establish as trees in the shrublands because deficiency of B limits their growth and increases the competitive strength of the grass sward relative to eudicot plants in the landscape.

Trees that elephants select are generally at risk to local extirpation. Elephants are the primary drivers of change to large savannah trees, pushing trees over, ring barking or damaging them. These impacts have an adverse effect on the diversity and structure of woody vegetation. Many tree species have slow growth and recruitment rates. This makes it difficult for ecosystems to recover after damage, especially in areas with high densities of elephants. In this study, we mapped the spatial distribution of six endemic and priority tree species that are selected by elephants using Sentinel-2 imagery. Data on the GPS locations of the selected trees were collected and a machine learning algorithm, Random Forest, was used to discriminate between species and to map their spatial distribution in the Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve. The algorithm successfully discriminated the different tree species with an overall accuracy of 79.6%, ranking the vegetation red edge (Band-7) and water vapour (Band-9) as the most important bands in the classification. Colophospermum mopane is a dominant tree species in terms of its distribution on the reserve, and according to the classification results, canopies of this species cover approximately 17% of the study area, while Commiphora spp. cover 19%. These findings indicate the effectiveness of Sentinel-2 imagery for mapping savannah tree species that are valuable for conservation and selected by elephants.

The potential of Colosphospermum mopane for phytoremediation of heavy metal (HM) contaminated soil was evaluated. C. mopane seedlings were planted on soils from the vicinity of Cu-Ni mine as affect...

We investigated application of MaxEnt, a one-class classifier, in mapping the spatial distribution of Colophospermum mopane, Dichrostachys cinerea and Salvadora persica using drainage, elevation, s...

Mopane worm is the edible larva of Imbrasia (Gonimbrasia) belina (Westwood, 1894), a species of emperor moth that is generally found in central and southern African tropical regions. Both over-harvesting of larvae and the destruction of the mopane woodlands are threatening its biodiversity. An insect with a description matching that of I. belina was observed in the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal, a subtropical biota. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the potential of the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal as a sanctuary for I. belina. The presence of I. belina in the subtropical biota of the coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal was confirmed through mitochondrion CO1 gene sequences, this being so far its southernmost occurrence. Field surveys revealed the occurrence of four morphologically distinct variants within the uMkhanyakude District, inclusive of the protected iSimangaliso Wetland Park and Hluhluwe Game Reserve from the beginning of September to early November as do most of the populations in the mopane woodlands but differs from them by having one outbreak per season instead of two. Imbrasia belina is polyphagous and feeds off hosts including marula (Sclerocarya birrea [(A. Rich.) Hochst.] [Anacardiaceae]) and seven other tree species. There is therefore scope to use the northern KwaZulu-Natal coastal region as a sanctuary for biodiversity conservation of I. belina. There are initiatives to cultivate marula for its fruit in the region, which further increases the potential of the area as a sanctuary for I. belina by farming marula for both its fruit and I. belina. The protected nature reserves present in the region will ensure areas of controlled use by humans.

This study assessed the effect of conventional bulk packaging materials, storage time and temperature on qualityof dried mopane worm (Imbrasia belina). Changes in the quality of dried mopane worm (MW) were evaluatedin a 2 x 2 x 5 factorial experiment comprising packaging material (polypropylene woven (PP) and hessian sack),storage temperature (ambient temperature and 33 °C) and storage time (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 days) with threereplications. Experimental data obtained was subjected to ANOVA and the means separated using the post hocTukey test at 5 % level of significance. Quality of traditionally processed dried MW was analysed using changesin physicochemical (ash, moisture, fat, protein and colour (L*, a*, b* and ∆E*), microbial (yeast and mouldand coliform) count and sensory (colour, taste, texture and overall acceptability) qualities. The proximatecomposition of dried MW was not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by the interaction between the treatments.The interaction among treatments significantly (p < 0.05) affected colour parameters L*, a*, b* and ∆E*. Therewas no significant (p > 0.05) interaction between packaging materials, temperature and storage time on yeast,mould and coliform counts. The sensory quality of dried MW was not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by theinteraction between the treatments thus indicating consumer acceptability. Deteriorative change in the qualityof dried MW was lower in PP than HS for the two levels of temperature over the duration of the experiment.

Forest tree genetic resources are one of the most important repositories of biological diversity, constituting a key component for the stability of the ecosystems. Due to the increasing human pressure and global climate changes, the management and conservation of forests has become a key issue in order to sustain their productive, environmental and socio-economic value. Therefore, worldwide the development of appropriated conservation strategies became a priority and several international, regional and national initiatives and framework instruments have been established. The research focused on the analysis of plant and microbial diversity in the Miombo and Mopane woodlands, the densely-forested ecosystems of African savannas, in two key conservation areas, the Niassa Special Reserve (NSR), northern Mozambique, and Limpopo National Park (LNP), southern of Mozambique, respectively. Both ecosystems are considered sources of woody species, their resources contributing to the livelihood systems of millions of households in rural and urban areas that depend on these ecosystems for their food, health, energy and housing needs. Moreover, these ecosystems play an important role for the environment, for its overall impact on energy, water and carbon balance. Fire is the major threat to which these ecosystems are exposed, being essentially related to human and climate pressure and herbivory by elephants. The project aimed at contributing to the Management Program of NSR and LNP, particularly to the components of fire control and biodiversity conservation. The proposed work was integrated into a multi-disciplinary program and focused on two selected priority species from the legume family, Brachystegia boehmii (Miombo) and Colophospherum mopane (Mopane), preceeded by an overall characterization of legume tree distribution, diversity and conservation status in the two ecosystems. In the first part of the study it was concluded that, despite the high diversity of species (78), there was a notable research gap regarding their conservation status (Chapter 2). Over the last two years, this gap has been properly addressed and the percentage of catalogued species in the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species – IUCN, has increased from 15 to 77%. Most of the species (56) are classified as least concern, 2 as vulnerable, and another 2 as nearly threatened, reflecting the ongoing conservation efforts in the region. The remaining 18, in which the two focal species of this thesis are included, were not yet evaluated (Chapter 5). In the second part of the the work (Chapters 3 and 4), the dynamics of rhizobacteria diversity and associated functional traits have been analysed, considering different soil types and fire regimes, using culture-independent (Metagenomics) and culture dependent approaches. Despite the fact that both Miombo and Mopane rhizosphere bacteria were quite rich, there was a clear difference between them. First, the abundance of Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) was higher in B. boehmii (977 – 1391 OTUs) than in C. mopane (696 – 831 OTUs), which was also reflected in the Shannon diversity index, i.e. 7.21 – 8.50 vs 4.040 – 4.087, respectively. Second, while the bacterial diversity in the rhizosphere of B. boehmii varied with the soil type and fire frequency, no changes were observed in C. mopane. This may be attributed to the multi-specific nature of Miombo vs. the mono-specific nature of Mopane. However, in both cases, a pyrodiversity effect seems to be an important evolutionary driver towards high-temperature tolerance in both cases. The most representative groups were Actinobacteria (40%), Proteobacteria (20%), and Acidobacteria (13%) in Miombo and Firmicutes (31%), Bacteroidetes (25%), and Proteobacteria (23%). At the species level, the rhizosphere of B. boehmii was enriched in newly characterized species from recalcitrant environments, like the thermophilic, halo- and radiotolerant Gaiella oculta and the thermotolerant Rhodoplanes tepidicaeni and Saccharopolyspora spongiae, likely playing multiple roles in plant growth and protection as well as in soil fertility and/or restauration and/or remediation. The metagenomics approach did not allow to resolve taxonomic questions at the species level in the Mopane rhizosphere, probably because the most abundant species are yet unidentified. However, higher taxonomic classification suggests that the diversity of functions accomplished by these bacteria is similar to that of Miombo. Regarding the Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) isolated from soils, a larger collection was captured in Mopane (16 isolates, nine species: Bacillus sp., Caballeronia concitans, Pantoea agglomerans, Paraburkholderia phenoliruptrix, Phyllobacterium myrsinacearum, Pseudomonas azotoformans, Pseudomonas gessardii, Pseudomonas synxantha and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia) than in Miombo (eight isolates, five species: Burkholderia sp., Caballeronia zhejiangensis, Microvirga sp., Rhizobium spp., Variovorax defluvii), all accomplishing at least one PGP trait, i.e. nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, indole acetic acid production, siderophore production, and hydrolysis of cellulose. Regarding the bacteria trapped in Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) nodules, the number of isolates was considerably higher in Miombo (64 isolates, including symbiotic Ensifer adhaerens, Mesorhizobium sp., Neorhizobium galegae, Rhizobium sp., and non-symbiotic Agrobacterium sp., Cohnella sp., Herbaspirillum huttiense, Pseudomonas sp., and Stenotrophomonas sp.) than in Mopane (23 isolates, including symbiotic Bradyrhizobium sp. and Rhizobium sp., and non-symbiotic Azospirillum zeae, Cohnella rhizosphaerae, P. agglomerans, Pseudomonas nitroreducens. In both cases, nodule consortia bacteria promoted cowpea growth, but the effect of Miombo consortia was considerably more prominent. Altogether the results revealed that rhizospere bacteria from both Miombo and Mopane are highly resilient to soil composition and fire, hiddding an enourmous bio-economic potential for the devolpement of nature-based solutions like, the production of fertilizers, soil remediators, phytostimulators, or antimicrobials. The produced knowledge constitutes a significant contribution to the understanding of the dynamics of soil bacteria in tropical forest ecosystems, namely in what concerns plant-microbe interactions, and bioprospection of new species. Despite the fact that tropical ecosystems host ca. 80% of the global biodiversity, pressures imposed by a combination of human, animal and climate pressure are imposing major challenges. Thus, understanding key aspects of the ecosystem dynamics is of utmost importance to support community-based conservation programs.

Savanna woodlands make a significant contribution to rural households’ livelihoods, providing a wide range of resources as well as generating income. However, the sustainability of the woodland ecosystem is generally affected by the human harvesting intensities. This study aimed at quantifying the woodland resource extraction rates and its effects on woodland structure and density. Data were collected from households using a semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interviews, and from 128 rectangular plots measuring 30 m × 30 m. Vegetation parameters, such as tree density, tree height, diameter at breast height, species, stump density, and stump diameter, were recorded. The results of the study revealed that a total of 649 woody stumps were recorded, with an average of 56 trees removed per hectare. The findings showed that the intensities of stumps varied widely, with a high number of stumps recorded at a distance of 10–15 km from the settlements, where major land-use activities are fuelwood extraction, cultivation, and livestock farming. The results also showed that the increased commercial fuelwood production led to cutting of large mopane trees, which is an indicator of unsustainable harvesting. Based on the harvest rates provided by the respondents, results showed that large quantities of fuelwood were harvested for trading, which could put pressure on the woodland ecosystem, consequently resulting in woodland degradation. This study provides forest and range resource managers with valuable information on the quantities of stumps as an indication of tree removals and could be useful in developing effective monitoring strategies and promoting sustainable forest and woodland management.

Background The prevalence of allergic diseases is increasing in Zimbabwe and the data relate to local as well as exotic allergen sources. As entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, is a recognised source of local allergens, we sought to measure the prevalence of and risk factors for sensitisation to Imbrasia belina (mopane worm), a popular edible insect. This was investigated alongside other locally relevant allergens in a rural community in Gwanda district, south of Zimbabwe. Methods A cross sectional study was conducted among 496 adults and children aged 10 years and above in Gwanda district, a mopane worm harvesting area in Zimbabwe. Data on individual characteristics and mopane worm exposure factors were collected using questionnaires. Sensitivity to allergens was assessed by performing skin prick tests at a local clinic using 10 different commercial allergen extracts (Stallergenes, France) and in-house extracts of mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) and mopane leaves (Colophospermum mopane). Data were analysed using Stata version 13 software. Results The prevalence of sensitisation to at least one allergen was 31.17% (n = 144). The prevalence of atopy was higher in adults (33.33%) than in children (23.53%) (p = 0.059). The commonest inhalant allergen sources were mopane worm (14.29%), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (14.29%), mopane leaves (13.42%), Alternaria alternata (6.49%) and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (6.49%). Polysensitisation was demonstrated in the study population and of the 108 participants (75%) who were sensitised to two or more allergens, 66 (61%) were women. Sensitisation to mopane worm and mopane leaves often clustered with Tyrophagus putrescentiae amongst adults. Adjusted logistic regression analyses between mopane worm sensitisation and self-reported exposure variables showed that sensitisation was more likely amongst mopane worm harvesters (OR = 1.92, 95%CI = 0.77–4.79), those who cooked or roasted mopane worms during harvesting (OR = 2.69, 95%CI = 0.78–9.31) and harvesting without personal protective equipment (PPE) (OR = 2.12, 95%CI = 0.83–5.44) compared to non-harvesters. Conclusion Atopic sensitization was common in this mopane worm harvesting community in Gwanda district of Zimbabwe. There was frequent co-sensitisation of mopane worm and mopane leaves with Tyrophagus putrescentiae in children and adults. It is important to determine the clinical relevance of our findings, particularly relating to mopane worm sensitisation.

Many species rear offspring in fixed sites, returning frequently to provision them, and the selection of these sites is a critical decision in the life cycle, as they may in some instances increase susceptibility to predators. African wild dogs are a groupliving large carnivore that rear their offspring in fixed sites, provisioning dependent pups in dens for 3 months post-birth. Where possible, African wild dogs select den sites in rocky terrain, and it is hypothesised that this is because lions, their main predators, generally avoid this habitat. In the Okavango Delta, Botswana, there is a lack of rocky terrain, providing an opportunity to assess whether lions drive den site selection. GPS collar data from 7 impala and 4 lions revealed that both species prefer to reside in grassland and mixed woodland habitats, demonstrating that these are high risk/reward areas for African wild dogs. Using GPS collar data from 16 African wild dog packs over 8 years, our study characterised 116 African wild dog den sites identified in the field. Packs showed a preference for denning in mopane woodland, which lions avoid, and packs commuted further from the den each day as the den’s distance to grassland and mixed woodland increased, suggesting a preference for hunting in this habitat. Our results suggest that African wild dogs trade-off the costs of commuting and predation risk, such that longer commuting costs confer increased safety. Species which utilise dens, nests, or other fixed sites to rear offspring must balance the need to protect their young from predators with the need to acquire resources for themselves and their young. The selection of den sites is expected to be of considerable importance to enable the animal to meet these two requirements and successfully raise young. Our study of African wild dogs indicates that they select dens in resource-scarce areas which are likely to minimise interactions with their main predator, lions. This increases the distance to prey-rich areas and therefore the cost of hunting. Availability of appropriate habitat for both hunting and denning is therefore important when considering landscapes appropriate for African wild dog conservation, energetic constraints of breeding, and home-range indices.

Changes in vegetation conditions are induced both by climatic and human factors. Knowledge about how changes in vegetation conditions relate to its degradation is often lacking, although needed to sustainably manage rangeland resources in drylands. Contributions made to develop land management options require assessing vegetation dynamics and degradation in Palapye, an agro-pastoral region of high economic and biodiversity importance in eastern Botswana. The Vegetation Degradation Index (VDI) was applied to 18-year (1986–2016) time series of annual Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (ANDVI) images to establish vegetation degradation levels, i.e. relatively undegraded, low degradation, medium degradation, and high degradation. Plant species metrics and biophysical variables were then examined at nine sites with the aim of explaining variations in the vegetation degradation levels. Approximately 95% of the study area experienced low degradation and 11% had significant negative trends in ANDVI. Species richness, diversity, and rainfall explained 49% of the variance in degradation levels. Species diversity and richness were highest in Moeng (a relatively undegraded site), whereas they were lowest in Lesenopole (a low degradation site). A probable reason being that Colophospermum mopane contributed 87% of individual trees and shrubs at Lesenopole. Species diversity and richness were also negatively associated with VDI. The non-occurrence of some species such as Sclerocarya birrea and Lonchocarpus capassa on highly degraded sites suggests a link between species composition and the level of degradation. This study combined the use of theremote sensing-based VDI with field-based plant species data for validating vegetation degradation levels in a dryland context.

An experiment was carried out to assess the effect of replacing fishmeal with mopane worm meal in the diet of Clarias gariepinus. Juvenile C. gariepinus weighing 67.04 ± 3 g were stocked in 15 rectangular concrete tanks connected to a recirculating system. Five diets denoted D1, D2, D3, D4 and D5 were formulated to replace fishmeal with mopane worm meal at 0, 10, 20, 40 and 60%. Triplicate groups of C. gariepinus were randomly assigned to each diet at a stocking density of 100 fish per tank. The fish were fed to apparent satiation twice daily for 51 days. All growth performance indices declined with higher mopane worm inclusion levels. Specific growth rate (SGR) declined from 1.85%/day in the control diet to 1.43%/day in diet 5. Protein efficiency ratio (PER) also declined from 25.27% in the control diet to 19.30% in diet 5. Apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) followed a similar pattern declining from 92.2% in the control diet to 87.1% in diet 5. Both amylase and protease activity in the stomach increased with higher mopane worm inclusion levels. Despite the increased enzyme activity in the stomach, SGR declined. The decline in SGR was attributed to high acid detergent fibre (ADF 58.4 g/kg) and chitin in the mopane worm diets. Lipase and chitinase did not show any discernible pattern with high mopane worm inclusion levels in the stomach. In the intestines, protease, lipase and chitinase did not show any discernible pattern with high mopane worm inclusion levels. Consequently, the relationship between SGR and all these enzymes was weak. However, amylase activity declined with higher mopane worm inclusion levels in the intestines, and this resulted in decreased SGR (r2 = 0.6722). The negative effects of mopane worm meal were further confirmed by the increase in liver degradation scores at high mopane worm inclusion levels. The liver degradation score increased from 1.12 in the control to 2.46 in diet 5.

SummaryThe near-threatened Lilian’s Lovebird Agapornis lilianae is a small parrot endemic to the Zambezi basin in south-east Africa. The species has a fragmented distribution predominantly within mopane woodlands and is widely referred to as a mopane specialist. The harvesting of mopane trees for charcoal production and timber are having widespread impacts on this woodland habitat, raising concerns over its capacity to support biodiversity. This study aimed to understand the key drivers determining the occurrence of Lilian’s Lovebird in the mopane woodlands of Zambia, focusing particularly on aspects of woodland structure, including the size and density of trees. We used a MaxEnt species distribution model based on historical species occurrence data, to inform selection of 116 survey plots in the Luangwa, Luano and Zambezi valleys. Each plot was sampled for Lilian’s Lovebirds and woodland structure described. Occurrence of Lilian’s Lovebird was found to be positively associated with the size of mopane trees (both height and diameter at breast height) suggesting that large ‘cathedral’ mopane trees provide a key resource for the species and that conservation efforts should focus on the protection of sites containing large trees. No Lilian’s Lovebirds were recorded in areas where they previously occurred to the west of Lower Zambezi National Park, and there was an absence of ‘cathedral’ mopane habitat in this area.

This study assesses the current mode of forest use and management at rural community level in South Africa with a view to locating space for forest-based green growth initiatives development and factors that might shape the uptake of such initiatives. This was done with respect to the need to decouple rural livelihood activities from forest degradation. Vegetation type was used as a criterion to select three municipalities (Makhado, Mutale, and Thulamela) in Vhembe District. Seven rural communities in each municipality were selected giving a total of 21 rural communities. Using stratified proportionate random sampling procedure, a total of 366 households were selected and interviewed. Findings showed that the informal forest sector is best positioned for immediate delivery of green growth benefits to the local communities. Firewood and wild edible insect (mopane worms) were identified as the priority products for forest green growth initiative uptake. However, issues relating to skill and technical capacity were identified as a barrier to the uptake of green growth initiatives in the communities. The study thus recommends capacity enhancement initiatives and forest establishment programmes such as afforestation and reforestation as a means of facilitating forest green growth uptake and delivery of green growth benefits to the study communities.

Despite the nutritional value of Colophospermum mopane leaves to browser's diets, there is limited knowledge on the effect of browsers on the concentration of macronutrients in mopane leaves. A field experiment was conducted in Musina Nature Reserve, Limpopo Province, South Africa to determine the effect of pruning, a proxy for browsing, on the concentration of macronutrients in mopane leaves. Samples were analysed for calcium (Ca), potassium (K), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg), nitrate (NO₃), sodium (Na), protein and fibre, using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry techniques. The effect of pruning on the monthly concentration of macronutrients was tested using a two‐tailed t test: two‐sample assuming equal variance. The seasonal and annual effect of pruning on the concentration of macronutrients was tested using a one‐way ANOVA. Results showed that the amount of Ca, K, N, P, S, Cl, Na, protein and fibre increased during leaf flush in October and then declined as the leaves matured and aged. However, the concentration of Mg and NO₃ increased when the leaves reached maturity in June, particularly during senescence stage, and declined thereafter. The concentration of macronutrients between the control and pruned trees was statistically insignificant for most samples.

Global climate change is gradually changing species distribution and their patterns of diversity. Yet, factors that influence the local distribution and habitat preferences for southern African species remain largely unexplored. Here, we computed the suitable habitats in the southern African region for Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) using the maximum entropy (Maxent) modeling approach. We utilized one Global Circulation Model (GCM) and three Representative concentration pathways (RCPs) to determine the current and future distribution of C. mopane. The results showed that the distribution of C. mopane was mainly influenced by solar radiation, annual temperature range, and annual precipitation. According to the species response curves, this species preferred habitats with annual precipitation of 130-200 mm, an annual temperature range of 28° C, and elevations of about 500 m above sea level. The results highlight that the geographic range of C. mopane is likely to expand along the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe in the future, particularly in the miombo plains. Conversely, suitable habitat areas reduce significantly in the eastern area of the southern African region, while the western areas expand. Overall, the appropriate habitat areas will likely decline in the 2050s under both RCPs and expand in the 2070s under the two scenarios. This knowledge is important for landscape planners and rangeland managers working to safeguard biodiversity from extinction.HighlightsHigh reliability of models in habitat suitability modelling for C. mopaneSolar radiation is the most significant variable for the current distribution of mopane.Climate change is and will reduce the habitat suitability of our target species.

Simple Summary Insects are the most abundant animals in the world, with all species accounting for more than 70% of the global animal population. To manage the production of insects in the interest of food security, more attention should be given to environmentally-friendly harvesting methods such as indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). Since edible insects have economic, nutritional, and ecological advantages, their production deserves more attention from both national governments and assistance programmes to ensure food security. By developing improved conservation methods, insect production could be readily available throughout the year. Consequently, this review provides information that stakeholders such as farmers and national governments can use to make more informed decisions in relation to the contribution of indigenous knowledge systems to the production and sustainability of edible insects. Abstract Edible insects can be produced sustainably, with less environmental impact than other forms of livestock. Globally, over 2000 edible insect species have been reported and are regarded as a great source of nutrition, both as food and feed. Over the years, rural people have used indigenous knowledge to either store or process such insects. However, such valuable knowledge, if not properly recorded and documented, can easily be lost. Thus, there is a need to strike a balance between the use of indigenous and scientific knowledge to produce and process these delicacies. In addition, such indigenous knowledge is vital for preserving biodiversity, since insects are good indicators of climate change as it influences their development, reproduction, and survival. Therefore, successful and sustainable solutions may lie in bringing back indigenous knowledge systems.

The present study was carried out in Limpopo National Park (LNP) with the objective to map floristic communities that occur inside the park. Three (3) Landsat 8 satellite images were obtained by Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) tools and were pre-processed and classified, culminating in six (6) types of land use and cover. The floristic survey consisted of stratified sampling in three (3) main LNP landscapes types, namely landscape of limestone soils, landscape of rhyolite shallow soils and landscape of deep sandy soils. The final map presents 13 floristic communities identified by the names of greatest value of ecological importance (IVI) species. The community of Terminalia sericea / Combretum apiculatum / Guibourtia conjugata / Colophospermum mopane presented a larger occurrence area. Colophospermum mopane was the most representative species among the mapped communities, mostly occurring in association with other species. The overall accuracy was 74% and the Kappa index was 68%, thus giving a good rating. The mapping also showed that human occupied areas are larger than some floristic communities areas, so we suggest that these smaller communities, should be given priority actions for their conservation, especially those without human occupation. Resumo O presente estudo foi realizado no Parque Nacional do Limpopo (PNL), com o objetivo de mapear comunidades florísticas que ocorrem no parque. Foram obtidas três (3) imagens do satélite Landsat 8 com os sensores Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS), para as quais foi feito o pré-processamento e a classificação, culminando em seis (6) tipos de uso e cobertura de terra. O levantamento florístico consistiu numa amostragem estratificada por paisagem, nomeadamende paisagem de solos calcários, paisagem de solos rasos de riolito e paisagem de solos arenosos profundos. O mapa final apresenta 13 comunidades florísticas identificadas pelos nomes das espécies de maior valor de importância ecológica (VI). A comunidade de Terminalia sericea / Combretum apiculatum / Guibourtia conjugata / Colophospermum mopane apresentou maior área de ocorrência. Colophospermum mopane foi a espécie mais representativa entre as comunidades mapeadas, ocorrendo em maior parte associada com outras espécies. A exatidão global foi de 74% e o índice Kappa foi 68%, atribuindo assim um nível de boa classificação. O mapeamento também demonstrou que áreas de ocupação humana são maiores que as áreas de cobertura de algumas comunidades florísticas, deste modo sugerimos que estas comunidades menores sejam priorizadas na conservação, especialmente aquelas que não apresentam ocupação humana.

Background Allergic diseases are considered to be some of the fastest growing chronic conditions in Africa. Of concern is the paucity of knowledge about the local environment and its role in allergic disease development. In response to this, we explored whether Imbrasia belina, a popular indigenous edible insect commonly known as mopane worm, is a potential allergen of clinical and public health significance in Zimbabwe. This study was intended to assess the plausibility and feasibility of this hypothesis with a view to evaluate the insect’s health impact in a larger study. Methods The study participants included male and female villagers aged 10 years and above in Gwanda district, Zimbabwe. Eligible participants who completed the household questionnaire were referred to the local clinic for skin prick tests and to measure lung function and allergic airway inflammation. Allergen sensitisation patterns were evaluated using 10 different inhalant allergen extracts including an in-house preparation of mopane worm. Lung function was measured with a Koko Legend spirometer, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide levels (FeNO) (NIOX VERO) were measured in participants with at least one abnormal spirometric parameter. Data was analysed using Stata version 13 software. Results Of the 46 eligible participants that completed the household questionnaire, 17 went to the clinic giving a response rate of 37%. The majority who completed the questionnaire were adults (91%) and the children (9%) were all female. The prevalence of sensitisation to Imbrasia belina was 50%, and the prevalence ranged from 22 to 72% for the other allergens including cockroach, mosquito and house dust mites. The data collection tools were safe and well tolerated by participants with no adverse events reported. Self-reported respiratory symptoms, abnormal lung function and elevated FeNO were recorded amongst participants sensitised to mopane worm. Conclusion Pre-defined feasibility criteria were met with the exception of a lower than expected response rate for clinic data collection in this pilot study. For the main study, modifying the sampling strategy and applying more consistent community engagement will improve the response rates.

Precise vegetation descriptions and maps are essential tools for the management of natural areas, as well as for understanding animal habitat use. The Chobe Enclave (CE), adjacent to the Chobe National Park and the Chobe Forest Reserve, forms a critical dry season range for many large herbivores. As a tool for future management and studies about wildlife habitat use and migration, this study proposed to describe the plant communities in the CE and to study their relationships with microtopography and soils. Plant species were inventoried in 82 sampling plots (40 x 20 m), covering the vegetation diversity recognised by an unsupervised classification (Landsat images, 30-m resolution). A hierarchical clustering classified the inventories in eight plant communities, mapped with a supervised classification. This study was conducted in parallel with a soil study. Soil variations and degree of flooding largely determine community composition. Floodplains along the Linyanti River and dambos (concentrating local run off from rainfall) provide reliable green forage for wildlife during the dry season. Adjacent to floodplains, riverine forests also maintain green browse and grazing well into the dry season. In drylands, vegetation is largely determined by soil texture. Forests dominated by Baikiaea plurijuga occupy the acidic, red sands in the east, while sandveld vegetation grows on deep sands in paleo-river channels. These habitats support dominant grasses, which provide important forage for grazers during the wet season. Finally, woodlands dominated by Colophospermum mopane, characterised by sodium-rich and alkaline soils, enable herbivores to meet their mineral requirements during reproduction. Conservation implications: Our soil and vegetation studies provide important insights into factors determining plant communities. Their diversity and close vicinity play a critical role in enabling herbivores to adapt to seasonal variations in forage quantity and quality. Results will enable researchers to gain insights into animal habitat seasonal use in the Chobe Enclave.

Funding text: This work was supported by funds from Camões, Instituto da Cooperação e da Língua and Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia through the research unit UIDB/00239/2020 (CEF), the PhD grant SFRH/BD/113951/2015 (Ivete Sandra Maquia), and the contribution to the International Rice Research Institute. (1) Aims: Assessing bacterial diversity and plant-growth-promoting functions in the rhizosphere of the native African trees Colophospermum mopane and Combretum apiculatum in three landscapes of the Limpopo National Park (Mozambique), subjected to two fire regimes. (2) Methods: Bacterial communities were identified through Illumina Miseq sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene amplicons, followed by culture dependent methods to isolate plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). Plant growth-promoting traits of the cultivable bacterial fraction were further analyzed. To screen for the presence of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the promiscuous tropical legume Vigna unguiculata was used as a trap host. The taxonomy of all purified isolates was genetically verified by 16S rRNA gene Sanger sequencing. (3) Results: Bacterial community results indicated that fire did not drive major changes in bacterial abundance. However, culture-dependent methods allowed the differentiation of bacterial communities between the sampled sites, which were particularly enriched in Proteobacteria with a wide range of plant-beneficial traits, such as plant protection, plant nutrition, and plant growth. Bradyrhizobium was the most frequent symbiotic bacteria trapped in cowpea nodules coexisting with other endophytic bacteria. (4) Conclusion: Although the global analysis did not show significant differences between landscapes or sites with different fire regimes, probably due to the fast recovery of bacterial communities, the isolation of PGPB suggests that the rhizosphere bacteria are driven by the plant species, soil type, and fire regime, and are potentially associated with a wide range of agricultural, environmental, and industrial applications. Thus, the rhizosphere of African savannah ecosystems seems to be an untapped source of bacterial species and strains that should be further exploited for bio-based solutions. publishersversion published

(1) Aims: Assessing bacterial diversity and plant-growth-promoting functions in the rhizosphere of the native African trees Colophospermum mopane and Combretum apiculatum in three landscapes of the Limpopo National Park (Mozambique), subjected to two fire regimes. (2) Methods: Bacterial communities were identified through Illumina Miseq sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene amplicons, followed by culture dependent methods to isolate plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). Plant growth-promoting traits of the cultivable bacterial fraction were further analyzed. To screen for the presence of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the promiscuous tropical legume Vigna unguiculata was used as a trap host. The taxonomy of all purified isolates was genetically verified by 16S rRNA gene Sanger sequencing. (3) Results: Bacterial community results indicated that fire did not drive major changes in bacterial abundance. However, culture-dependent methods allowed the differentiation of bacterial communities between the sampled sites, which were particularly enriched in Proteobacteria with a wide range of plant-beneficial traits, such as plant protection, plant nutrition, and plant growth. Bradyrhizobium was the most frequent symbiotic bacteria trapped in cowpea nodules coexisting with other endophytic bacteria. (4) Conclusion: Although the global analysis did not show significant differences between landscapes or sites with different fire regimes, probably due to the fast recovery of bacterial communities, the isolation of PGPB suggests that the rhizosphere bacteria are driven by the plant species, soil type, and fire regime, and are potentially associated with a wide range of agricultural, environmental, and industrial applications. Thus, the rhizosphere of African savannah ecosystems seems to be an untapped source of bacterial species and strains that should be further exploited for bio-based solutions.

In Mozambique, charcoal processes can result in several disturbances in natural forests. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of four carbonization methodologies on the anatomical characteristics and near infrared spectra of Spirostachys africana, Terminalia sp. and Colophospermum mopane, to contribute with information for an identification database for charcoal control. The carbonization was done in an electric muffle furnace with different final temperature (400/450 °C) and total time (40 min/2 h, 4 h, 6 h). The quantitative changes in anatomy of charcoal samples was not directly related to carbonization programs with respect to particular features of each species. Species are best distinguished for the NIR spectra in the region from 4000 to 5000 cm−1. In the analysis by species, charcoal produced at 450 °C—4 h were more distinct in comparison to other programs that resulted in mixed samples. Final temperature influenced more than total process time in species distinction and the use of NIR is reinforced as a potential tool to discriminate species submitted to different carbonization processes. These traits can be applied in species discrimination based on databases of wood anatomical descriptions and charcoal NIR spectra.

Urbanization and scarce income-earning opportunities have led to increasing commercialization of non-timber forest products in southern Africa, including the nutritious mopane worm 'Imbrasia (=Gonimbrasia) belina'. The mopane worm contributes substantially to incomes and food security in households across the region, but little research has addressed its use within South Africa. Using semi-structured interviews with harvesters and resource managers, this paper compares the management of mopane worm resources under public, private, and communal governance systems to explore the ability of each to provide users with sustainable access to the resource. Results show that governance is weaker in the communal property regime compared to the public and private property regimes. Weak control over access and high demand for mopane worms in urban and rural centres may be leading to a concentration of harvesting pressures in communally managed areas, increasing competition for a resource already scarce after years of drought and land-use change.

African woodland ecosystems function as important reservoirs for soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN). However, these ecosystem functions are particularly sensitive to social-ecological factors, the impacts of which remain understudied. Here, we examine how SOC and TN and other soil properties vary across woodland types and how charcoal production, the main source of woodland disturbance in the study area, changes these factors in dry woodlands of southern Africa, focusing on three woodland ecosystems that represent the main types in southern Mozambique: Androstachys forest, Combretum woodland and Mopane woodlands. Drawing on data from soil surveys at 0–5 cm and 0–30 cm depth in different vegetation types as well as both distant from and proximate to sites of active charcoal production, we estimate that these woodlands in Mabalane District store on average 19 ± 10 (±SE) Mg ha−1 of SOC, and 2.2 ± 0.9 Mg ha−1 of TN at 0–30 cm, significantly lower than values reported for other woodlands in the region such as Miombo. Our analysis shows that the woodland types do not differ in terms of the amount of SOC and TN stored in soil, and that soil in the charcoal kilns had twice the amount of SOC (30.0 ± 1.8 Mg ha−1) and TN (4.5 ± 0.5 Mg ha−1) compared with non-charcoal soils. This study adds to our understanding of the impact of charcoal production on soil SOC and TN in dry woodlands of southern Africa, and demonstrates some localised impacts of charcoal production. We discuss the implications of our findings in the light of emerging carbon-based payments for ecosystem services programmes in the region.

In Africa, about 470 insect species are recorded as edible, of which caterpillars are most consumed followed by grasshoppers, beetles, and termites. Most of those are collected from nature. There are several insect species, such as locusts and grasshoppers, that are pests of crops but which can be eaten at the same time. There are some edible insect species which are harvested in large number contributing to food security. Three of those species are discussed: the mopane caterpillar, the African bush cricket, and the shea caterpillar. However, when we would like to promote insects as food then harvesting from nature is not an option anymore, as overexploitation already occurs. Then we need to rear the insects. That can be done in semi-domesticated systems such as for the palm weevil or by farming insects as mini-livestock such as for crickets. We discuss the nutritional value of edible insects, and how they can contribute to food security. We also give examples of how insects can be processed and marketed. We conclude with the prospects of how edible insects can assure food security and improve the livelihood of the African people.

Mopane worm Gonimbrasia (Imbrasia) belina is of economic and nutritional significance mainly in Southern Africa, where it forms part of people’s diet. The mopane worm is found in mopane woodlands characterized by the mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane) from where the caterpillar entirely derives its nutrition. Generally, its nutritional value is quite diverse due to the stage of metamorphosis, insect’s origin, diet, preparation and processing methods. Mopane worms are nutritionally rich in protein content (approx. 58% dwb and 428.52 mg/g dry weight of the total protein), fat content (approx. 15% dwb of which 38% fatty acids are saturated and 62% are unsaturated), carbohydrates (approx. 8% dwb) and considerable proportions of minerals (approx. 1.335% dwb). Importantly, mopane worm contains significant amounts of fibre commonly chitin and possibly some bioactive compounds and antinutrional factors, though this has not yet established; hence, a study to ascertain their levels is vital. However, looking at the future mopane worm is under threat due to deforestation, human pressure, as populations grow, and erratic weather patterns and participation in the mopane worm trade increase. Additionally, mopane worm provides a favourable environment for microbial survival and growth, thus increasing the possibility of being spoiled and infected by pathogenic micro-organisms, such as fungi and their subsequent toxins such as aflatoxins. As such, intervention strategies such as food safety awareness and subsequent HACCP implementation are necessary so as to improve product safety. Legislative aspects and rural community support are critical and a necessity for sustainable production of mopane worm and subsequent utilization of the insect as a potential source of proteins and minerals in food items such as FBFs.

Strychnos cocculoides Baker (Monkey orange) and Guibourtia coleosperma (Benth.) Leonard (False mopane) are two socio-economically important indigenous species for rural communities in the northern regions of Namibia. The exploitation of these indigenous species is causing rapid declines in the goods and services produced. In addition, nursery experiments to assist the germination of these indigenous woodland trees are limited. This study aimed at investigating the effects of six pre-treatments [control, cold water (15 °C), warm water (50 °C), hot water (90 °C), scarification and chemical with 32% HCl] on the seed germination of both species. Prior to the pre-treatments, sample seeds were tested for viability using the tetrazolium and rag doll tests. This was conducted to determine whether the seeds used in this study were viable and had a germination potential. For both species, over 80% seeds were viable with the tetrazolium test. Germination results indicated a significant difference between the six pre-treatments, which was more pronounced for S. cocculoides than for G. coleosperma. For S. cocculoides seeds, warm water (80%), cold water (70%) and control (untreated seeds) (63%) yielded greater percentages of germination than hot water (40%), scarification (3%) and HCI-chemical (0%) after 7 weeks of germination. For G. coleosperma seeds, warm water (83%), cold water (80%), control (80%) and hot water (70%) produced the highest percentage of germination, compared to chemical (67%) and scarification (67%) pre-treatments. The control, cold and warm water pre-treatments showed germination of S. cocculoides seeds within 3 weeks of sowing, while for other treatments, seeds only germinated 4 weeks after sowing. Guibourtiacoleosperma untreated and warm water-treated seeds germinated earlier (week 2) compared to the other pre-treatments, for which germination only occurred during week 3. Therefore, the study recommends warm water as an ideal pre-treatment to promote germination in S. cocculoides and G. coleosperma species. Potential future studies could investigate effect of different temperatures and photoperiods on the germination percentage of the two species.

Despite the wide distribution of the Tragelaphus strepsiceros (greater kudu) in the mopane woodland, there is still limited information on the influence of terrain on the browsing path of the great...