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Direct membrane filtration (DMF) is a promising alternative secondary wastewater treatment process in Iceland, where biological treatment is not effective due to low strength wastewater nature and low temperature. This study aims to investigate membrane fouling mechanisms and mitigation approaches during DMF of municipal wastewater using a crossflow membrane filtration system integrated with an optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging system. During DMF of wastewater, it was observed that intermediate pore blocking was dominant during the early stage of fouling, followed by cake filtration. Multi-filtration cycles were performed under different conditions, and the results revealed that (1) elevating flushing water temperature from 25 to 50 °C greatly reduced the intermediate pore blocking constant accompanied with a decreased physically-irreversible fouling; (2) increasing both filtration and flushing crossflow velocities did not influence the pore blocking constant, but caused a lower cake filtration constant with reducing both physically-reversible and irreversible fouling; (3) extending filtration-flushing duration interval appeared to slightly lower the pore blocking constant; (4) with extending filtration cycles, a shift of reversible fouling to irreversible fouling was noticed and associated with the compression of the tightly attached cake layer that was not readily removed by periodical flushing. A combination of periodical physical flushing with short term chemical-enhanced cleaning was employed and sustainable long-term operation of DMF was achieved. Furthermore, the foulants autopsy indicated that biofouling combined with organic/inorganic fouling influenced the cake fouling development. This work was supported by the University of Iceland Research Fund.

Emerging pollutants (such as micropollutants, microplastics) and pathogens present in wastewater are of rising concern because their release can affect the natural environment and drinking water resources. In this decade, with increasing numbers of small-scale decentralized wastewater systems globally, the status of emerging pollutant and pathogen mitigation in the decentralized wastewater treatment processes has received more attention. This state-of-the-art review aims to discuss the mitigation efficiencies and mechanisms of micropollutants, microplastics, and pathogens in single-stage and hybrid decentralized wastewater treatment processes. The reviewed results revealed that hybrid wastewater treatment facilities could display better performance compared to stand-alone facilities. This is because the multiple treatment steps could offer various microenvironments, allowing incorporating several mitigation mechanisms (such as sorption, degradation, filtration, etc.) to remove complicated emerging pollutants and pathogens. The factors (such as system operation conditions, environmental conditions, wastewater matrix) influencing the removals of emerging pollutants from wastewater in these systems have been further identified. Nevertheless, it was found that very limited research work focused on synergised or conflicted effects of operation conditions on various emerging pollutants naturally present in the wastewater. Meanwhile, effective, reliable, and rapid analysis of the emerging pollutants and pathogens in the complicated wastewater matrix is still a major challenge.

Direct membrane filtration (DMF) has recently gained attention as an alternative secondary biological wastewater treatment process. This study evaluated direct microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) performance and cleaning protocols during crossflow DMF of primary municipal wastewater effluent. Several types of MF and UF membranes were examined by threshold flux determination, and two types of membranes (MF, 0.08 μm; UF, 100 kDa) were chosen for exploring membrane fouling mechanisms at different feed pressures via both fouling resistance analysis and optical coherence tomography (OCT) observation. The results revealed that both MF and UF displayed three-stage fouling behaviors, i.e., initial intermediate pore blocking followed by two-stage cake filtration. Increasing feed pressure from 8 kPa to 50 kPa could accelerate physically reversible fouling rate (consistent with simulated cake filtration constant). During physical flushing, the cake layer was more readily removed from the UF membrane; while residual porous cake layer was present on the MF membrane, regardless of the feed pressure. With extending filtration-cleaning cycle, shortening filtration duration and elevating cleaning solution temperature to from 25 °C to 50 °C benefited for irreversible fouling alleviation. At 50 °C, the geothermal water performed similar cleaning behaviors as clean water, facilitating lower reversible and irreversible fouling than the geothermal brine. This study shed light on the feasibility of using high temperature geothermal water for periodic physical cleaning during DMF of wastewater under Icelandic scenario. Economic Development Board (EDB) This work was supported by the University of Iceland Research Fund. The Student Innovation Fund from Rannís in Iceland was acknowledged for providing summer research grant to Dagmar Olafsd ´ ottir. The Economic Development Board (EDB) of Singapore is acknowledged for funding the Singapore MembraneTechnology Centre (SMTC) , Nanyang Technological University.

Direct membrane filtration has shown great potential in wastewater treatment and resource recovery in terms of its superior treated water quality, efficient nutrient recovery, and sustainable operation, especially under some scenarios where biological treatment is not feasible. This paper aims to give a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art of direct membrane filtration processes (including pressure-driven, osmotic-driven, thermal-driven, and electrical-driven) in treating different types of wastewater for water reclamation and resource recovery. The factors influencing membrane performance and treatment efficiency in these direct membrane filtration processes are well illustrated, in which membrane fouling was identified as the main challenge. The strategies for improving direct membrane filtration performance, such as physical and chemical cleaning techniques and pretreatment of feed water, are highlighted. Towards scaling-up and long-term operation of direct membrane filtration for effective wastewater reclamation and resource recovery, the challenges are emphasized and the prospects are discussed.