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An acute ischaemic stroke (AIS) is a non-specific state of brain injury with neuronal dysfunction that has several pathophysiologic causes and is time critical. More than 70% of cases are due to thrombotic or embolic causes with resultant focal ischaemia and an accompanying neurological deficit. Initial assessment, stabilization and early imaging are important aspects of effective stroke management. Over the last two decades, thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy have proven beneficial in reversing neurological deficits and improving functional outcomes. Guidelines now support administration of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt- PA ) up to 4.5 hours and extension of thrombectomy windows up to 24 hours after onset of symptoms in a select group of patients. Other important aspects of management include administration of antiplatelet agents (aspirin) within 48 hours, management within a specialist stroke unit, and decompressive hemi-craniectomy for malignant middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke.

BACKGROUND: There is a lack of consistent, evidence-based guidelines for the management of patients with fever after brain injury. The aim was to update previously published consensus recommendations on targeted temperature management after intracerebral haemorrhage, aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage, and acute ischaemic stroke in patients who require admission to critical care. METHODS: A modified Delphi consensus, the Neuroprotective Therapy Consensus Review (NTCR), included 19 international neuro-intensive care experts with a subspecialty interest in the acute management of intracerebral haemorrhage, aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage, and acute ischaemic stroke. An online, anonymised survey was completed ahead of the meeting before the group came together to consolidate consensus and finalise recommendations on targeted temperature management. A threshold of ≥80% for consensus was set for all statements. RESULTS: Recommendations were formulated based on existing evidence, literature review, and consensus. After intracerebral haemorrhage, aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage, and acute ischaemic stroke in patients who require critical care admission, core temperature should ideally be monitored continuously and maintained between 36.0°C and 37.5°C using automated feedback-controlled devices, where possible. Targeted temperature management should be commenced within 1 h of first fever identification with appropriate diagnosis and treatment of infection, maintained for as long as the brain remains at risk of secondary injury, and rewarming should be controlled. Shivering should be monitored and managed to limit risk of secondary injury. Following a single protocol for targeted temperature management across intracerebral haemorrhage, aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage, and acute ischaemic stroke is desirable. CONCLUSIONS: Based on a modified Delphi expert consensus process, these guidelines aim to improve the quality of targeted temperature management for patients after intracerebral haemorrhage, aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage, and acute ischaemic stroke in critical care, highlighting the need for further research to improve clinical guidelines in this setting.

This review considers important aspects in the provision of anesthesia for endovascular neurosurgery. Subject literature was reviewed to include important publications which have influenced neuro-interventional practice alongside recent meta-analyses to provide a contemporaneous evidence-based review. The scope of endovascular neurosurgery and interventional neuro-radiology continues to expand. The advancement of catheter and imaging technologies, alongside the development of novel techniques, has allowed a minimally invasive endovascular approach to be applied to pathologies previously only treatable by open surgery, and to patients previously considered unsuitable for invasive surgical approaches. This has led to increasing complexity in both the procedures performed and the patients encountered in the neuro-radiology suite. An understanding of the technical aspects, physiological requirements, and potential problems relating to each procedure is required to facilitate close cooperation between the anesthesiologist and neuro-interventional team, to provide safe and effective care.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has affected people of all ages, races, and socioeconomic groups, and placed extraordinary stress on health care workers (HCWs). We measured the prevalence of burnout and assessed wellbeing and quality of life (QoL) in HCWs at a single UK neuroscience center after the first pandemic surge. METHODS: A 38-item electronic questionnaire was disseminated through local team email lists between May 22 and June 7, 2020, to HCWs in a university neurosciences center. Burnout was measured using the single-item Emotional Exhaustion and Depersonalization scales, and wellbeing and QoL assessed using the Linear Analogue Self-Assessment Scale and the EuroQol-5 Dimension instrument. RESULTS: The response rate was 57.4% (n=234); 58.2% of respondents were nurses, 69.4% were women and 40.1% were aged 25 to 34 years. Overall, 21.4% of respondents reported burnout assessed by the Emotional Exhaustion scale; burnout was higher for nurses (23.5%) and allied health care professionals (22.5%) compared with doctors (16.4%). HCWs from ethnic minority groups reported a higher rate of burnout (24.5%) compared with white HCWs (15.0%). There were no differences in reported wellbeing or QoL between professional groups, or HCW age, sex, or race. Nurses (36.8%) and staff from ethnic minority groups (34.6%) were more fearful for their health than others. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the prevalence of HCW burnout after the first surge of the pandemic, with an increased risk of burnout among nurses and staff from ethnic minority groups. Both nursing and staff from ethnic minority groups were also more fearful for their health. With ongoing pandemic surges, the impact on HCW wellbeing should be continuously assessed to ensure that local strategies to support staff wellbeing are diverse and inclusive.

The insertion of bolt external ventricular drains (EVD) on the intensive care unit (ICU) has enabled rapid cranial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) diversion. However, bolt EVDs tend to be perceived as a more challenging technique, particularly when dealing with small ventricles or when there is midline shift distorting the ventricular morphology. Furthermore, if neuronavigation guidance is felt to be necessary, this usually assumes a transfer to an operating theatre. In this technical note, we describe the use of electromagnetic neuronavigation for bolt EVD insertion on the ICU and assess the protocol’s feasibility and accuracy. Case series of neuronavigation-assisted bolt EVD insertion in ICU setting, using Medtronic Flat Emitter for StealthStation EM. Neuronavigation-guided bolt EVDs were placed at the bedside in n = 5 patients on ICU. Their widest frontal ventricular horn diameter in the coronal plane ranged from 11 to 20 mm. No procedural complications were encountered. Post-procedural CT confirmed the optimal placement of the EVDs. Electromagnetic neuronavigation is feasible at the ICU bedside and can assist the insertion of bolt EVDs in this setting. The preference for a bolt EVD to be inserted in ICU—as is standard practice at this unit—should not prohibit patients from benefitting from image guidance if required.

Subarachnoid haemorrhage is an acute neurosurgical emergency affecting patients of all ages and with high mortality. It is usually caused by rupture of an aneurysm of an intracranial artery at a point of turbulent blood flow within the circle of Willis. Diagnosis should be made rapidly initially with non-contrast CT of the head. Minimizing secondary neurological injury is the focus of care. Initial stabilization focussing on providing adequate cerebral oxygenation and perfusion should be carried out expediently and this may require intubation and ventilation. Transfer to a specialist neurosciences centre for ongoing management is the next priority. Culprit aneurysms should be secured promptly by endovascular coiling or surgical clipping. Recognition and management of complications is best undertaken in a centre managing high volumes of these patients. Vasospasm is a common and feared complication of subarachnoid haemorrhage. All patients should be given nimodipine for prophylaxis and management of this complication.

Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The critical care management of TBI requires a coordinated and comprehensive approach to treatment, including strategies to prevent secondary brain injury and maintenance of adequate cerebral perfusion and oxygenation. Management protocols have evolved with international consensus, providing guidelines that assist clinicians in delivering optimal care. Those from the Brain Trauma Foundation are continuously updated to incorporate new trial data ( https://braintrauma.org/coma/guidelines ).

Secondary brain injury has devastating effects on morbidity, mortality and good functional outcomes. Neuroprotection is multimodal, with decades of preclinical and small clinical studies showing the benefits of therapeutic hypothermia. The basic scientific principles have merit, yet large randomized controlled trials fail to show a clear benefit. This article will review the basic science the practical aspects of delivering targeted temperature management and evaluate the evidence behind its use for acute brain injuries. With a lack of high-quality evidence for hypothermia, recent consensus statements are shifting the paradigm away from hypothermia to the maintenance of normothermia and prevention of pyrexia.

The accuracy of tunneled external ventricular drain (EVD) placement has been shown to be similar among practitioners of varying experience, but this has not yet been investigated for bolt EVDs. Tunneled and bolt EVDs are distinct techniques, and it is unclear if conclusions regarding accuracy can be inferred from one method to the other. The goal of this study was to determine whether neurosurgical experience influences the accuracy of bolt EVD placement. We performed a single-center retrospective analysis of accuracy of bolt EVD placement between 1st December 2018 and 31st May 2020, comparing the accuracy outcomes between three levels of training (junior trainees (JT); mid-grade trainees (MT); senior trainees/fellows (ST)). Accuracy was determined radiologically by two methods: Kakarla grade and by measuring the distance of the catheter tip to its optimal position (DTOP) at the foramen of Monro. Eighty-seven patients underwent insertion of bolt EVDs, of which n = 19 by JT, n = 40 by MT and n = 28 by ST, with a significant difference found between training grades in the median Kakarla grade (p = 0.0055) and in the accuracy of placement as per DTOP (p = 0.0168). In contrast to previous published results on tunneled EVDs, we demonstrate that the accuracy of bolt EVD placement is dependent on neurosurgical experience. Our results draw awareness to the fact that the bolt EVD technique can represent a challenge for less experienced practitioners and underline the importance of dedicated training to support the safe insertion of bolt ventricular catheters.

Background Multimodal monitoring of intracranial pressure and brain tissue oxygen tension (PbtO2) have been increasingly used to detect delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) after subarachnoid hemorrhage. At our center, patients who cannot be easily assessed clinically will undergo intracranial pressure and PbtO2 monitoring via a NEUROVENT-PTO bolt. We aimed to determine whether the Lindegaard ratios (LRs) computed from transcranial Doppler ultrasonography (TCDU) would correlate with, or can predict, the simultaneously recorded PbtO2 value. Methods Patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, PbtO2 recordings from the middle cerebral artery territory, and simultaneous TCDU scans available from the ipsilateral middle cerebral artery and internal carotid artery from August 2018 to 2019 were included in the present study. The index test result was vasospasm (LR of ≥3) found on TCDU. The reference standard was the presence of regional hypoxia (PbtO2 Results A total of 28 patients (6 men and 22 women; age, 59.04 ± 13.75 years) were identified with simultaneous brain tissue oxygen and TCDU recordings available. Of the 28 patients, 7 had cerebral hypoxia (PbtO2 Conclusion We find TCDU to be specific for predicting cerebral hypoxia (measured via an intraparenchymal probe). Therefore, it could be a useful and noninvasive tool in the context of preventative DCI monitoring. However, given the low sensitivity, the lack of vasospasm on TCDU should not preclude the possibility of the presence of evolving DCI.

The insertion of bolt external ventricular drains (EVD) on the intensive care unit (ICU) has enabled rapid cranial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) diversion. However, bolt EVDs tend to be perceived as a more challenging technique, particularly when dealing with small ventricles or when there is midline shift distorting the ventricular morphology. Furthermore, if neuronavigation guidance is felt to be necessary, this usually assumes a transfer to an operating theatre. In this technical note, we describe the use of electromagnetic neuronavigation for bolt EVD insertion on the ICU and assess the protocol's feasibility and accuracy.Case series of neuronavigation-assisted bolt EVD insertion in ICU setting, using Medtronic Flat Emitter for StealthStation EM.Neuronavigation-guided bolt EVDs were placed at the bedside in n = 5 patients on ICU. Their widest frontal ventricular horn diameter in the coronal plane ranged from 11 to 20 mm. No procedural complications were encountered. Post-procedural CT confirmed the optimal placement of the EVDs.Electromagnetic neuronavigation is feasible at the ICU bedside and can assist the insertion of bolt EVDs in this setting. The preference for a bolt EVD to be inserted in ICU-as is standard practice at this unit-should not prohibit patients from benefitting from image guidance if required.

The World Health Organisation declared a coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on March 11, 2020. Following activation of the UK pandemic response, our institution began planning for admission of COVID-19 patients to the neurointensive care unit (neuro-ICU) to support the local critical care network which risked being rapidly overwhelmed by the high number of cases. This report will detail our experience of repurposing a neuro-ICU for the management of severely ill patients with COVID-19 while retaining capacity for urgent neurosurgical and neurology admissions.We conducted a retrospective process analysis of the repurposing of a quaternary level neuro-ICU during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. We retrieved demographic data, diagnosis, and outcomes from the electronic health care records of all patients admitted to the ICU between March 1, 2020 and April 30, 2020. Processes for increase in surge capacity, reduction in ICU demand, and staff redeployment and rapid training are reported.Over a 10-day period, total ICU capacity was increased by 21.7% (from 23 to 28 beds) while the capacity to provide mechanical ventilation was increased by 77% (from 13 to 23 beds). There were 30 ICU admissions of 29 COVID-19 patients between March 1 and April 30, 2020; median (range) length of ICU stay was 9.9 (1.3 to 32) days, duration of mechanical ventilation 11 (1 to 27) days, and ICU mortality rate 41.4%. There was a 44% reduction in urgent neurosurgical and neurology admissions compared with the same period in 2019.It is possible to repurpose a dedicated neuro-ICU for the management of critically ill non-neurological patients during a pandemic response, while maintaining access for urgent neuroscience referrals.

Status epilepticus (SE) it is widely recognized as the second most common and life-threatening neurological emergency after stroke, which carries a high mortality and morbidity. The main goal of treatment is to emergently stop clinical and electrographic seizure activity. Most authorities agree on three-line treatment for SE with administration of benzodiazepines followed by longer-acting anti-epileptic agents and finally, if seizures persist, the administration of general anaesthetic agents.

Introduction Severe COVID-19 disease is associated with a hyperinflammatory, pro-thrombotic state and a high mortality. A thrombotic phenotype rather than a coagulopathy is suggested and we undertook plasma exchange to determine its effects on organ function and thrombo-inflammatory markers. Methods Plasma exchange was carried out in seven critically ill adults with severe COVID-19 respiratory failure (PaO2:FiO2 ratio 800 IU/L and D dimer>1000 µg/L (or doubling from baseline). Patients received a daily single volume 3 litre plasma exchange for a minimum of five days. No other immunomodulatory medications were initiated during this period. Effects on organ function, thrombo-inflammatory markers and complications were monitored. Seven patients matched for age and baseline biochemistry were a comparator group. Results Coagulation screening revealed no evidence of coagulopathy. However, von Willebrand Factor (VWF) activity, antigen and VWF antigen:ADAMTS13 ratio, Factor VIII and D-dimers were all elevated. Following five days of plasma exchange, plasma levels of all the above, and ferritin levels, were significantly reduced (p Conclusion Plasma exchange was associated with an improvement in oxygenation, decreased incidence of AKI, normalisation of lymphocytes and reduction in circulating thrombo-inflammatory markers including D-Dimer and VWF Ag:ADAMTS13 ratio. Disclosures Thomas: Ablynx: Honoraria, Other: Advisory Board; Bayer: Honoraria, Speakers Bureau; Sanofi: Honoraria, Other: Advisory Board. Scully:Takeda: Consultancy, Speakers Bureau; Alexion: Consultancy, Speakers Bureau; Sanofi: Consultancy, Speakers Bureau; Shire/Takeda: Other: Advisory Board, Research Funding, Speakers Bureau; Novartis: Other: Advisory Board, Speakers Bureau; Takeda: Speakers Bureau; Ablynx/Sanofi: Consultancy, Other: Advisory Board, Speakers Bureau.

Neuromuscular diseases are relatively rare but it is important for both anaesthetists and intensivists to have a working knowledge of the common diseases, as they may complicate general anaesthesia and result in neurogenic respiratory failure. The most common neurological condition seen in the intensive care unit is that of critical illness neuropathy; this subject is covered elsewhere in the journal. The diseases most commonly encountered in general anaesthetic practice include motor neurone disease, Guillain-Barre syndrome, botulism, myasthenia gravis and the muscular dystrophies.

Spontaneous subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) is a neurovascular emergency with sudden onset, which requires rapid recognition and early treatment to minimize the occurrence of serious complications. The most common cause is a cerebral aneurysm, which develops at areas of turbulent flow, especially within the circle of Willis. Initial aims are to provide appropriate resuscitation to the patient and to maintain cerebral oxygenation and perfusion. Anaesthesia involves prompt airway control and precise management of physiological parameters to reduce further neurological injury, such as from re-bleeding or delayed cerebral ischaemia. Once stabilized SAH patients should be admitted to a neurointensive care unit and managed by a skilled multidisciplinary team. Definitive treatment then involves either endovascular coiling or surgical clipping, preferably in hospitals managing high volumes of SAH cases per year. Care should be also taken throughout to avoid non-neurological complications such as infections or venous thromboembolism.

The brain uses large amounts of glucose for its basal energy requirements, and these are further increased during cerebral activation. In order that glucose can provide this energy, a plentiful and uninterrupted supply of oxygen is necessary. Cerebral blood flow is therefore critical for normal cerebral function. Its control is dictated by local intrinsic metabolic needs as well as extraneous factors such as arterial blood pressure, arterial carbon dioxide and oxygen tension, temperature and neural factors. This article reviews cerebral metabolism and cerebral blood flow and techniques by which both can be monitored.

Key points The scope of interventional neuroradiology has expanded rapidly. Conditions which were previously untreatable or only amenable to open surgical techniques are now being considered for interventional radiological management (Table 1). View this table: Table 1 Classification of interventional neuroradiological procedures Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) accounts for about 5% of all strokes and may be due to congenital or acquired conditions, the most common being intracranial aneurysms. Cerebral aneurysms are present in up to 6% of the population.1 SAH requires a multi-disciplinary approach to management, at a dedicated neurosciences centre. Patients may present with sudden-onset occipital headache (‘thunder clap’). Associated features include nausea and vomiting, neck stiffness, photophobia, focal neurology, deteriorating level of consciousness, seizures, and cardiac arrest.2 Complications after an SAH include re-bleeding (5–10% in the first 72 h), obstructive hydrocephalus (incidence of 20–30% within 3 days of ictus), and vasospasm (angiographically demonstrated arterial narrowing 3–14 days after SAH). Delayed cerebral ischaemia and vasospasm may be asymptomatic and are associated with a worse outcome after SAH. The mortality rate at 7 days post-SAH is up to 40%. Other multisystem features include ECG changes (e.g. shortened PR interval, prolonged QTc interval, ST segment changes, and changes to T wave morphology), elevated cardiac enzymes, cardiogenic and neurogenic pulmonary oedema, and sodium disturbances. Patients with suspected diagnosis of SAH should have an urgent non-contrast computerized tomography (CT) scan (sensitivity of …

Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) accounts for about 5% of all strokes and affects 6– 12/ 100 000 of the UK population per year, the majority of whom are young. Mortality is around 50%, with up to 25% dying before reaching hospital. One-third of survivors are dependent for care and almost half will have cognitive impairment sufficient to affect their quality of life. 1,2 SAH requires a multi-disciplinary approach to management 3 in a neurosciences centre, 4 with treatment directed towards securing the ruptured aneurysm, minimizing secondary brain injury, and preventing and treating systemic complications. In 2011, the Neurocritical Care Society issued consensus guidelines for the critical care management of aneurysmal SAH with the aim of improving outcome. 4

Diseases that affect the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) interfere with normal nerve transmission and cause weakness of voluntary muscles. The two most commonly encountered are acquired myasthenia gravis (MG) and the Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS). Acquired MG is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies are directed towards receptors at the NMJ. In 85% of patients, IgG antibodies against the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) are found (seropositive MG). The thymus gland appears to be involved in the production of these which cause an increase rate of degradation of AChR resulting in a decreased receptor density resulting in a reduced postsynaptic end-plate potential following motor nerve stimulation and leading to muscle weakness. Although all voluntary muscles can be affected, ocular, bulbar, respiratory, and proximal limb weakness predominates. In the majority of seronegative patients, an antibody directed towards a NMJ protein called muscle specific tyrosine kinase (MUSK) is found. Anti-MUSK MG is characterized by severe bulbar and respiratory muscle weakness. Diagnosis of MG requires a high degree of clinical suspicion coupled with pharmacological and electrophysiological testing, and detection of the various causative antibodies. Treatment of MG involves enhancing neuromuscular transmission with long-acting anticholinesterase agents and immunosuppression. Acute exacerbations are treated with either plasma exchange or intravenous immunoglobulin. Myasthenic crisis is associated with severe muscle weakness that necessitates tracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation. LEMS is an autoimmune disease in which IgG antibodies are directed towards the pre-synaptic voltage-gated calcium channels at the NMJ. It is often associated with malignant disease (usually small cell carcinoma of the lung). Autonomic dysfunction is prominent and patients show abnormal responses to neuromuscular blocking drugs.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The article reviews the treatment options for cerebrovascular atherosclerosis and highlights the challenges of anesthesia in this complex group of patients. RECENT FINDINGS: Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and stenting is a treatment option for cerebrovascular atherosclerosis in patients at high risk of stroke despite maximal medical therapy and control of risk factors. The majority of carotid lesions are treated using regional anesthesia, but general anesthesia is currently the technique of choice for intracranial lesions because of the length of the procedures and the need for immobility. There is no evidence to guide optimal anesthetic management in this group of patients in whom significant comorbidities are common. The risks of myocardial ischemia, cardiovascular instability and cerebral ischemia and hyperperfusion are high, and anesthesia management should be directed towards their prevention, recognition and treatment. SUMMARY: The anesthetist plays a key role in the endovascular management of patients with cerebrovascular atherosclerosis. Optimization of comorbidities, meticulous control of systemic physiologic variables and aggressive management of complications contribute to enhanced patient outcome.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a frequently used technique that produces particularly good images of soft tissue, providing greater contrast between different types of tissue than computerized tomography scans. It is used extensively for imaging the central nervous, musculoskeletal, and cardiovascular systems, and also the pelvis and liver. More recently, MRI technology has evolved to fulfil the needs of demanding new clinical domains, including an active role inside the operating theatre. All equipment must be compatible with the MR environment and allow safe anaesthesia and adequate monitoring in this setting. The incorporation of MRI technology into the operating theatre brings additional challenges.

This article describes the anatomy and physiology of cerebrospinal fluid and the abnormalities that can result in hydrocephalus.

The aims of the preoperative assessment of neurosurgical patients include exchange of information, reassuring the anxious patient, establishing whether raised intracranial pressure is present and optimizing any co-existing medical problems, which may or may not be related to the neurological condition. The patient’s neurological status must be assessed and documented preoperatively as it will impact on the anaesthetic and is vital for assessing the patient in the postoperative period. Patients often have co-morbidity and are commonly taking hypoglycaemic, anticonvulsant, anticoagulant, antihypertensive, corticosteroid, and chronic pain medication, all of which may influence the conduct of anaesthesia. Fluid and electrolyte disturbances are common as a result of the underlying condition or of the treatment received. It is important that these are identified and corrected preoperatively. Difficult airways are encountered frequently (e.g. in patients with cervical spine abnormalities or acromegaly) and it is therefore particularly important to carry out a detailed airway assessment and construct a plan for airway management. The preoperative assessment and consideration of the underlying neuropathology allow formulation of an appropriate and safe plan for induction, airway management, maintenance of anaesthesia and postoperative care.