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Late in the summer of 1967 Southland Paper Mills, Inc. placed in operation a 52,000-kw combined cycle power plant. The plant utilizes two 13,550-kw gas turbines and one 25,000-kw single automatic extraction condensing steam turbine. The power plant furnishes the total power requirements for their new Sheldon mill. This paper presents background data on the mill and describes the power plant in some detail. Flow diagrams are presented and reviewed. Features of the generating equipment and the steam generators are described. Switchgear and load coordination is discussed. The operation and reliability of the plant to date are summarized and the combined cycle in terms of paper mill requirements is evaluated.Copyright © 1969 by ASME

d-Limonene is the main volatile constituent of citrus peel oil, and the collected volatile portion of oil is usually referred to as d-Limonene in the trade. The later definition will be used throughout this paper rather than the exact chemical definition. Paper published with permission.

The use of pulp wash as an aid in the production of citrus juice has gained acceptance since 1957. Earlier use is known, but real recognition seemed to await a certain period in the development of frozen orange juice concentrate, and a freeze. The history of this product could be divided into three time periods each approximately equal. The first period of time was certainly formative in which the product enjoyed all of the advantages of novelty. The second period of time was characterized by increasing competition and need for lowering costs. This required that the plants measure the fruit in terms of pounds of soluble solids and that they recover as product all that could be had without an unquestionable damage to quality. The demand for more recovery of the soluble solids exceeded the capability of any mechanical finishing equipment to distinguish between the juice left on a quite dry pulp and the pulp, which still had good juice on it. This brought about fresh thinking and new processing ideas, including one of gently rinsing the juice from a wet pulp. This became known as “Pulp Wash” and was developed during the third period of time. Paper published with permission.

The Citrus Processing industry has come a long way in the last twenty years. In some respects the handling of plant wastes may be said to have kept pace with this growth. Two decades ago, the only by-product was peel oil. Peelings and pulp were hauled away to groves or other suitable locations by crude forerunners of modern dump trucks. The more remote this location was the better since the odor could be terrific. Any suitable lake or city sewer or underground well was used for liquid wastes. Paper published with permission.

The importance of this development to the citrus industry need not be further discussed as all of you are well aware of financial advantage possible through pulp washing. Paper published with permission.

Pelleting of complete formula feeds in this country started in the early 1930’s. Today, it is estimated that over thirty million tons are pelleted annually. Pelleting of single ingredients, such as citrus fines, alfalfa meal, wheat by-products, and sugar beet pulp, received their impetus in the early 1950’s. Today, it appears that large quantities of citrus pulp will be pelleted for the domestic and foreign markets. Paper published with permission.

Processors of citrus fruit are faced with disposal of the pulp left over after juice is extracted from the fruit. Generally, the pulp is dried in steam or oil fired dryers and then sold as cattle feed. If disposal of the pulp is the prime factor of interest to the operator; shredding and hot air drying is sufficient. For more efficient removal of water from the pulp and the obtainment of other by-products, mainly citrus molasses and stripper oil, consideration should be given to the installation of presses and a molasses evaporator. Most authorities will agree that water can be evaporated more efficiently in a multiple effect evaporator than in a hot air dryer. Presses and an evaporator represent considerable investment, therefore the decision to install a Molasses Plant must be weighed carefully, balancing potential savings against the installed cost. Paper published with permission.

Automated control is an old story in the concentrate industry and is typified by the normal evaporator control systems, brix blenders, etc. that are installed in all of the concentrate plants. The phase of automation to be discussed here concerns the control of the rate of oranges being conveyed from the storage bins to and through the juicing operation. The purpose of this control system is to allow the extraction, finishing and pulp wash processes to take place at continuous uniform rates in direct and continued relationship to evaporator requirements. Paper published with permission.

Bulk storage of dried citrus pulp at Plymouth was first considered because our customers, many of whom have been buying our pulp for 15 years, were adopting feeding systems which fitted bulk feeds, and because bag and bag dumping costs seemed to provide a source for sizeable savings. Paper published with permission.

One of the most perplexing problems that confronts the designer of citrus processing machinery and equipment is that of corrosion resistance. Citrus waste product, pulp, and juice have a citric acid content of around 2.7% by weight which will quickly destroy paint or lacquer finishes and will rapidly corrode carbon or low alloy steels. Only the highly alloyed chromium nickel steels, monel, inconel, pure nickel, some of the bronzes, tin and copper can withstand the corrosive attack of citrus juice and pulp. Paper published with permission.

Before 1935, orange juice had been made into concentrate in California and elsewhere, using milk evaporators. The concentrate produced was for soft drink bases, but was not good enough to be reconstituted for drinking. Paper published with permission.

This presentation was originally intended to be an account of the shake-down cruise and initial operating results of the Kraft Foods, Citrus Processing Waste Water Treatment Plant. Since this plant has not yet been completed, there are no operating results; and, we will have to confine our remarks to the why’s and wherefore’s of this particular design. In order to do this logically, a quick review of waste procedures available to the citrus industry will help to orient the reader. (See Figure 1.). An explanation of each procedure follows. Paper published with permission.

The production and distribution of chilled citrus segments and salads has developed into an important outlet for Florida citrus within the last few years. These chilled segments are highly perishable sections clipped from oranges or grapefruit, using technics similar to the ones developed in the commercial canned section operation of the Florida citrus industry. The sections are subjected to a minimum of processing and for this reason maintain a substantial amount of their natural flavor for several weeks provided adequate refrigeration is provided. Paper published with permission.

A summary is given of recovery techniques during the past 30 years. Current innovations are mentioned and the recent research completed and currently in progress. Estimated recovery yields are discussed and areas of oil loss mentioned. The major uses of d-Limonene are described and the new anti-pollution law is discussed. The economics of the limonene market are shown to be tied to the turpentine market. There are comments about the future of terpene resins. Several goals for the future are presented. Paper published with permission.

Dried citrus pulp is an important by-product of the citrus processing industry. It is a bulky, granular, carbohydrate concentrate livestock feed produced by drying the peel, seed, and rag refuse of citrus fruit. Approximately 324,159 tons of citrus pulp were produced in 1964–65 (2). This amount will probably increase by more than 60 percent during the next 10 years, since the orange crop is expected to increase from the 1964–65 estimate of 83,000,000 boxes to 183,000,000 by 1975 with 80 percent of the oranges being processed (7). The 1975 grapefruit crop is expected to be 30,000,000 boxes with over one-half being processed. These increases in citrus production could mean that by 1975 over 650,000 tons of dried pulp would be produced in the State. Paper published with permission.

The annual production of dried citrus pulp within the Florida Citrus Industry has risen during the past twenty five years from a modest beginning to a total of over 330,000 tons per year. To this must be added another 52,000 tons of citrus meal and citrus molasses produced last year so that the combined total by-products production for cattle feed purposes during the 1958–59 season was approximately 380,000 tons. This was estimated to be worth over 14 million dollars. Paper published with permission.

Cartoned, or chilled orange juice as it is commonly called, is single strength orange juice which is marketed in a waxed fiberboard carton. It is prepared and treated in such a manner as to retain most of the flavor and aroma which is associated with freshly extracted orange juice. As a result it is quite perishable in nature and must be maintained under adequate refrigeration in order to reach the ultimate consumer in a palatable form. It is now produced by more than twenty processing firms in the state of Florida and marketed under more than seventy trade names or labels. In addition to the Florida producers there are several firms in the state of California producing a similar product for distribution on the West Coast. Chilled, or cartoned, orange juice produced in the state of Florida is distributed throughout the United States as far North as Canada and as far West as Oklahoma City. During the past season more than 3,000,000 boxes of Florida oranges were used in the production of this product. It is anticipated that during the current season an excess of 5,000,000 boxes will be utilized. Producers of this product range in size and investment from large citrus processing firms which have been well established in other citrus products for years, to small operators who have only two extracting machines and some used dairy equipment as a physical plant. Distribution ranges from large fleets of privately owned refrigerated trucks to once a week shipping schedules by a chartered refrigerated van. Paper published with permission.

Most of the citrus processing plants in Florida producing frozen orange concentrate are now using various types of equipment and processes, which are usually referred to as “pulp washing”, for the water extraction of fruit solids from orange pulp. Such processes, which were added for the first time in some Florida plants during the 1957–58 citrus season, have been adopted extensively during the 1958–59 season because of two reasons, (a) the increase in yield of soluble solids from fruit made possible by the water extraction of orange pulp from juice finishers and (b) the possibility for improving the quality of frozen orange concentrate by substitution of pulp washing procedures for a double juice finishing operation. That an increase in yield results from water extraction of pulp has been definitely established, but the question concerning the effect of such a process on the quality of frozen orange concentrate is still being debated by many persons in the industry. Paper published with permission.

Most of you have probably noticed the new addition to the Kraft Citrus Products Division Plant here in Lakeland. This is their new sectionizing plant for the preparation of fruit salad, which has only been in operation for a few weeks. Paper published with permission.

Investigations have been undertaken at the U. S. Fruit and Vegetable Products Laboratory at Winter Haven on the application of the foam-mat drying process to orange juice. An experimental drier has been built and is being used to test various methods of preparation of powder and to investigate the properties of the products. Paper published with permission.

A practical and relatively inexpensive process using nitrogen or other inert gases has been developed for the protection of flavors in frozen concentrated orange juice. During the 1957–1958 season, this Flavor Retention Process* was adapted to commercial operation in three processing plants in Florida. Paper published with permission.

Hypochlorite and iodophor germicides are compared with regard to physical, chemical and sanitizing properties. The influence of pH on the germicidal characteristics are evaluated and the theory of mechanism of germicidal action reviewed. Hypochlorite and iodophor are compared under a variety of use conditions of temperature concentration, presence of organic matter, and different materials of construction. The economics of sanitizing with hypochlorite and iodophor is reviewed with various dispensing equipment. Paper published with permission.

The use of Nitrogen and other inert atmospheres to reduce or replace oxygen is an old, yet not well practiced art in the manufacture, storage, handling and packaging of orange juice. The art of Nitrogen treatment of orange products was first developed with canned and bottled single strength juice. The primary or designed purpose being to increase product end container shelf-life by eliminating oxygen. Paper published with permission.

Almost four million tons of citrus fruit were used by the Florida processing plants last year. Juice obtained from citrus represents only approximately half of the weight of the fruit. Two million tons of peel, pulp and seeds, accumulated yearly at processing plants, presents a challenge and an opportunity. This is a large amount of raw material, readily available, concentrated in a relatively small number of locations, and produced over a period of time which makes possible economical handling and processing. Paper published with permission.

It is not my purpose to introduce you to the composite can. This was accomplished a little more than four years ago. Rather, I would like to describe briefly the background and achievements of this container and perhaps shed some light on its future with the Florida frozen concentrated citrus juice industry. Paper published with permission.

The Sargeant Radio-Frequency Evaporator is a radically new approach to the concentration of citrus juices above the level of 54° Brix. With your indulgence, I would like to explain this principle by using various flow diagrams. Paper published with permission.

This paper summarizes regulations from 80 countries covering air pollution emissions from gas turbines. The paper includes emission and ground level concentration standards for particulates, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, visible emissions, and carbon monoxide.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

The horsepower size of the engines that are being used by the highway hauler trucking industry has been steadily increasing. The most obvious advantage for using a gas turbine engine for this application is the significant savings in weight and size over other types of prime movers. The mechanical transmission, for use in the heavy duty highway hauler tractor application, has been the standard of the industry because of its advantages in reliability, cost, efficiency, weight, size, and ease of maintenance. This paper describes some of the developments and improvements which have been made to the mechanical transmission that practically eliminates all the skills and effort required to operate the new generation of gas turbine highway hauler tractors. The purpose of this paper is to present some of the approaches which have been taken to optimize the mechanical transmission for the heavy duty gas turbine tractor application by proper selection of gear ratios to improve vehicle performance, and by the utilization of newly developed controls and drivetrain components that produces a more versatile mechanical transmission.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

In recent years, developments in the explosive welding process have demonstrated that the process has many areas of application in the turbine field. This is a result of the process’s capability to weld a wide variety of the metals and alloys which are being utilized in turbines as well as recent applications of the process to fabricate complex shapes and structures which are often encountered in turbine components. This paper describes the successful application of explosive welding to actual turbine components as well as areas in which the process has potential for application in the future. Applications included in the paper include the repair of damaged bearings and shafts, application of protective claddings to selected areas, fabrication of complex channelled structures, and the welding of laminated structures.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

The recent upsurge in the utilization of turbomachinery in the various industries has created a great interest in various educational programs in this area. The scope of engineering education in turbomachines is very broad. The undergraduate student and his initial relationship with this subject is only the first phase of this education. Extension coruses at various levels to the practicing engineer is another important phase. Graduate courses in this area with their inherent research projects rounds out the entire picture. The paper outlines the various courses of study for the different phases and also interrelates these phases to show how by an exchange of information the various groups might benefit from each other. The paper also deals with various basic research and educational test rigs which may be setup to benefit both graduate and undergraduate students.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

This paper describes the design and development of the compressor and turbines of the British Leyland 2S/350/R truck engine. The design of these components has to meet the cycle requirements for efficiency and operating range on the one hand and have the ability to withstand the steady and vibratory stresses on the other. In addition the design has been influenced both by manufacturing methods and by the fact that the engine has to operate in an automotive environment. The paper discusses how these often conflicting requirements have been satisfied in the latest version of the engine.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

This paper presents information on the NREC core engine development program. The subject engine is a 100-hp, two-shaft gas turbine that is the low-power end of a family of engines up to 500 hp, both nonregenerative and regenerative. The major goal of the program has been the development of a low-cost small gas turbine engine (less than $5/hp to produce in quantities of 15,000/yr). Other objectives include low emissions (meeting the anticipated EPA standards for the markets of interest), relatively high performance (design point SFC = 0.7 for the simple-cycle engine and 0.4 for the regenerative version), and relatively long life (10,000-hr life at design power and a minimum service period of 500 hr). Items specifically covered in this paper include the following: (a) A description of the core engine concept. Frame size, regenerative, recuperative, and air compressor versions are discussed. (b) A technical description of the core engine concept. The salient low-cost features are identified. (c) The development program results. Some of the engine performance and manufacturing cost analysis results are given.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

In this paper, the authors describe construction and initial operating experience on two prototype gas turbine power plants located thousands of miles apart: Isefjordvaerket’s 140-MW plant at Kyndby, Denmark, built by Brown Boveri-Sulzer Turbomachinery (BST) and Northern States Power’s 200-MW plant at Blue Lake, Minnesota, built by Turbodyne Corporation (TBD). The paper provides a unique opportunity of comparing two approaches to a similar plant construction concept.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

This paper discusses the development of a 125-Mw combined cycle generating unit from the original developmental concepts to the initial operation. The initial justification, the evolution of the plant through design, and the actual construction are discussed. The actual construction site and the equipment utilized are described. A discussion of the cooling system and the licensing efforts that were required are also discussed. This paper also shows how this type of plant will provide a versatile, economical, mid-range peaking plant.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

This paper describes the construction and initial operation fo a 260-MW combined cycle power generating plant consisting of two gas turbines, each with its own heat recovery steam generator. The steam, which is generated at 1200 lb 950 deg in each of the boilers, is combined to feed a single cylinder axial exhaust steam turbine. The paper describes the major components and operating cycle, the control system and some of the initial startup problems.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

This paper considers the major interfaces between the main propulsion gas turbine and its environment in the ship. Both hardware and software interfaces are recognized and accent is placed on the designer’s approach to them. The importance of proper appreciation of design restraints and requirements is underlined. The various problems are general, and have been listed and discussed in summary form. Their solution can be sought with vigor only when applied to the particular case of a given gas turbine in a firmly projected ship. Thus the paper discusses problems and asks questions; it does not offer any general solutions.Copyright © 1974 by ASME

This paper, one of a series (see Appendix), deals with preparation by the manufacturer of the gas turbine, components, and accessories for domestic or overseas shipment. Further, it endeavors to point out some critical areas requiring serious attention prior to installation and operation of gas-turbine systems.Copyright © 1971 by ASME

In May of 1960 La Fleur Enterprises, later to become The La Fleur Corporation, undertook the design of a closed-cycle gas turbine utilizing helium as a working fluid. The useful output of this machine was to be in the form of a stream of helium bled from the last stage of the compressor. This stream was to be used in a low-temperature refrigeration cycle (not described in this paper) and would be returned to the compressor inlet at approximately ambient temperature and at compressor-inlet pressure. The design of this machine was completed by the end of 1960 and construction was initiated immediately. The unit was completed and initial tests were made in the Spring of 1962. This paper covers the design philosophy as it affected the conceptual and preliminary design phases of the project and describes briefly the design of the various components. Photographs of these components and a flow schematic are included.Copyright © 1963 by ASME

This paper is concerned with the propulsion control system, the philosophy behind its design, and the studies carried out during the design phase for the U.S. Coast Guard WAGB-10 Class Icebreaker. The initial portion of this paper is devoted to the control system-prime mover interface. The authors discuss the main features of the control system including the physical arrangement and operational characteristics as they relate to ship propulsion requirements. As background for discussing the control system requirements, the physical characteristics of the power plants (both diesel and gas turbine) and the propulsion power train are cursorily reviewed. Operation sequence considerations as well as loss of remote control are examined. Other system aspects such as the alarm, logging, and monitoring features are discussed in terms of their relation to performance and/or maintenance capabilities. The results of a transient simulation are reviewed with special emphasis given to their influence on the control system design. Speed and pitch control is described from the five indpendent control stations. Prime mover operation in free route and ice breaking is described with special attention focused on transfer between modes and between prime movers during increased power demand. In conclusion, the authors note that follow up operational and in-service testing and evaluation studies remain to be completed and that the results of such studies, when available, will be compared against the computer study.

This paper presents a closed cycle gas turbine power plant to utilize low temperature and low quality geothermal steam and water, that cannot be utilized in a steam turbine type of power plant. Fluids which have critical temperatures below 300 F, the usual geothermal water temperatures, can be utilized. This paper compares performances of power cycles using various fluids and establishes that carbon dioxide is the most suitable fluid for this application. The paper then compares performances of carbon dioxide cycles and establishes the best thermodynamic region for cycle operation. The generalized characteristics approach was used to analyze cycle performances and is briefly presented. It enables quick comparisons to be made for selection of an optimum cycle. The paper then considers a 2000-kw power plant operating on a closed CO2 cycle, establishes the geothermal water requirements and the system design. System control, and start-up problems are also discussed.Copyright © 1970 by ASME

The specification of permitted usable lives, or as they are frequently called “life limits,” is an F.A.A. requirement for critical aviation gas turbine rotating components in commercial use (1). To establish these life limits in a consistent conservative manner, a statistical analysis is necessary to assimilate the many variables involved. The most important parameters are the expected component deterioration with use, the characteristics of this use and the chosen overhaul times and maintenance procedures. Considerable effort has been expended in the aircraft engine industry to obtain better recordings of actual engine operation and environment. A paper by Hohenburg (2) which was principally concerned with such monitoring devices did, however, state “Users of engines must make decisions on when to perform maintenance, to overhaul, or to retire engines from service …. There is a substantial requirement for rational determination of maintenance and retirement intervals.” This paper demonstrates such a rational approach in the form of computer program SMILE (Statistical, Maintenance, Inspection and Life Evaluation). It compares, on the basis of estimated risk, alternative choices of life limits by including all the principal parameters involved. An example makes a comparison of a component with early crack initiation and substantial propagation before failure with an alternative design having late crack initiation but virtually infinitely fast propagation. It shows how a life limit may be considered redundant but necessary in the first case and essential in the second. The alternative risks with specified permitted usable lives will be estimated for each design.Copyright © 1970 by ASME

This paper is a continuation of a previously presented paper, which described the over-all design of the major components of a mobile power unit. The present paper is concerned with the main power equipment only and offers a detailed description of the design features which were developed for this project and also provide the flexibility necessary to make this gas turbine suitable for other applications.Copyright © 1956 by ASME

This paper describes the general requirements and past design practices on airborne gas-turbine-driven auxiliary power units, and in addition describes a new solution to the problem — installation of an APU in a streamlined pod. The unit was designed and developed by Solar Aircraft Company for use on the Convair C-131B airplane. Normally two complete pod units are used per airplane, one mounted beneath the wing on each side of the fuselage. Each is attached by means of a standard bomb shackle. Provisions have been made for jettisoning the unit in case of emergency. The paper describes the advantages of a gas turbine as the prime mover in airborne APU applications, the nature of the gas-turbine engine chosen, and its control system.Copyright © 1956 by ASME

The S.S.S. (Synchro-Self-Shifting) overrunning clutch with its pawl actuated helical sliding motion is well known, particularly in the gas turbine field. This paper reviews briefly the clutch operating principle, then outlines some of the service experience since 1958 in naval main propulsion drives in COSOS, COSAG, CODOG, CODAG and COGOG plant. Extra features are then described such as a lock-out control as is usually necessary for turbine applications to permit turbine testing, e.g., when in harbor; also a lock-in control as is essential when the clutch has to transmit power in both directions of rotation. Various clutch mounting respective advantages. The paper concludes with information regarding reliability during many years of service experience.Copyright © 1972 by ASME