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This study is an attempt to measure information versus propaganda in Swedish news paper editorials dealing with the question of Swedish nuclear armament. In order to categorize the content a schema was developed identifying the following content ele ments: 1) the possible defense alternatives; 2) the situation categorized into sixteen exclusive situation variables which may be affected by the choice of defense alternatives; 3) evaluations of alternatives or situations, dichotomized into good or bad; 4) general value concepts, called 'ideologies.' The sample consisted of four papers, three of which endorsed Swedish nuclear armament. The fourth did not take an explicit position. Propaganda was defined as selectivity in the presentation of factual decision premises, i.e. the descriptive statements about the situation variables. (The more propagandistic argumentation is thus uneven, with high frequencies of statements for some variables, and low for others.) We expected to find the argumentation of the uncommitted paper less propagandistic than the other three papers, but data gave no support for this hypo thesis.A closer study of the evaluations made of consequences of different alternatives dis closed two facts: 1) the uncommitted paper could be considered as an opponent of Swedish nuclear armament, as it tended to evaluate consequences of a Swedish nuclear armament negatively and consequences of other alternatives positively. 2) By dividing the material into three time periods, it was found that all the papers became totally one-sided in their evaluations during the last time period. That is, they exclusively made positive evaluations of their endorsed alternative and negative evaluations of other alternatives.Considering the fact that the 'uncommitted' paper could be classified as an opponent of Swedish nuclear armament, we investigated to see if we could find a tendency toward polarization. Did those who endorsed Swedish nuclear armament tend to stress some situation variables, while the paper that was against this alternative tended to stress other variables? A very slight tendency in this direction could be found. Because the sample was very small, no generalizations can be made regarding the Swedish press in general. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper starts with a short survey of the literature dealing with the prob lem of evaluating the performance of a given news medium or news channel as to the transmission of foreign news. Then it goes on to discuss various possibilities of testing hypotheses about the flow and structure of foreign news. A distinction between intra and extra media data is introduced, and finally, the outline of an empirical investigation is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Neo evolutionary theories of functional thinking presume a naturalistic conception of history while this paper takes as its domain assumption an activistic humanistic point of view. If the functionalistic evolutionary theories of social growth, of social differentiation and integration and of developmental viability arc given futuristic interpretations for advanced societies, there seems to be lacking evidence for their validity and they seem to be partly detrimental to the realization of welfare goals on a global level. Other functionalistic theories are implicitly based on evaluative criteria in an ambiguous way e.g. in terms of freedom, democracy, equality or rationality. Developmental analyses of advanced countries would profit from an integration with welfare theory and policy science where developmental direction is more clearly related to welfare goals. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A theory is formulated with which to analyze transactions in social retationships Economic types of exchange characterized by calculation and self-interest on the part of the actors are contrasted with more "social" forms of transaction such as occur in the cases of role relationships with interlocking rights and obligations and persons strongly attached to one another. The social factors and conditions determining the types of transaction likely to occur between actors are examined in the paper. The key idea in this respect is that the structural and temporal context of interaction, including the past and anticipated character of their relationship, affects actors' orientations toward one another, their preferences, decisions and interaction patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Two experiments were designed and performed to test an explanatory conjecture stated in an earlier paper. The conjecture says that dissonance (or cognitive imbalance) will occur among overrewarded participants in groups if, and only if, the overrewarded person is receiving or expects to receive indications of disapproval concerning how rewards are distributed in the group from an authority figure or an equitably rewarded group member.The experiments reported here used a modified Berger situation. The results tend to disconfirm the conjecture as stated. Various explana tions of the negative results arc discussed.Some further theoretical arguments concerning the nature and conse quences of inequity are presented. In spite of much experimental and other research, we do not possess much more trustworthy (replicable) information about equity processes than Homans did when he wrote Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. Some reasons for the empirical impasse are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper is a broad attempt at a multi-level conceptualization of social change. It proceeds by taking a concrete research problem (the relationship between industrialization and the response of labor) and following it through successive stages of conceptualization, model-building, and the construction of an integrated structure for operationalization. The purpose of the paper is thus twofold; specifically, it presents a theory, model and data-gathering approach for the concrete problem at hand and, generally, it outlines possible theoretical and causal links among three distinct levels of social phenomena.It begins by depicting selected concepts from five different theorists in a conglomerate model which shows posited conceptual links within a causal range. It then proceeds to build up a multi-level framework around the three levels of ecological aggregate, organizational structure, and the individual actor. The theoretical nature of human ecology is presented as especially appropriate for analysis of change variables and the relationship of organiza tional structure to the ecological base is defined. The communal unit is defended as a contextual base and the individual is related theoretically to both this base and the level of emergent structure. A more complete categorization of contextual and backround variables is then added to that of the existing litera ture, and the nature of these variables is made more precise in terms of the multi-level structure. Finally an attempt is made to integrate, in a determinate fashion, the three "incommensurate" levels. This is done by relying on prin ciples from ecological psychology whereby the concepts organism-environ ment, inside-outside, and thing-medium are used to postulate possibilities for cross-level causality. The end product is a multi-level, ecologically-based data structure for the analysis of dynamic social variables. An example is then presented of its application to the relationship between industrialization and labor response in Norway. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present paper outlines some rough suggestions for a possible Nordic computer-based information system for storing, processing and delivering the output of theoretical and empirical research on human communication that is being carried out within scientific and applied contexts first and foremost in the Nordic region. Such a system may contribute towards an integrated body of knowledge of human communication systems. The suggested areas covered and some gross dimensions of a possible reference frame for the organization of information are indicated, and user relations and requests are commented upon. It is advocated that both processed empirical data and theoretical propositions be handled by the proposed information system (called CRISS for short), and reasons for the need of it being partly computeriz ed are given. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Our point of departure in this paper has been that an organization can fruit fully be described as a system of organizational units rather than of individual roles. Whether or not two units in such a system can be described as connected can be determined, for example, by the frequency of communication between them. An account of the units in the system and the relations between them pro vides one aspect of a description of the organization's structure. Over and above this, the organization's way of functioning as a system can also be described; one of the relevant variables here is intraorganizational strain. Some writers have shown that there is a connection between intraorganizational strain and the organization's degree of goal satisfaction. In this paper we suggest some hypotheses on the origins of intraorganizational strain and have assumed that behavior in a system of organizational units can be explained by an analogy to theories con cerning interindividual systems. In conclusion our argument is illustrated by some examples from an empirical study. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Drawing largely on the Pentagon Study and other documentary evidence, the paper tries to trace the evolution in the post World War II period of the US imperial drive to the shores of Asia, and especially the historical record of the US Indo china involvement. Stress is laid on motivation and the driving forces behind the US engagement, particularly the political, strategical and economic interests.The paper analyzes the political strategy of the Nixon Administration and points to the continuity of US Pacific policies during the last five Admini strations. There has been only discontinuity in strategies, various Administrations trying to tackle the difficulties encountered from different angles and with different political and military instru ments. Doubt is expressed if the Nixon strategy- which in fact means a return to traditional great power diplomacy in the spirit of the XIX century - could produce a lasting peace. A lasting resolu tion of the Indochina conflict would require the fulfilment of two basic conditions: (1) to relieve tension in the inner circle of conflict by satis fying the social and national aspirations of the Indochinese peoples, i.e. stopping outside inter vention and allowing the national movements freely to shape the fate of the Indochinese nations; and (2) to eliminate conflict in the outer circle by making the area free of great power rivalry, especially in the military field, i.e. neutralization of the region.Some concluding remarks are offered con cerning the nature and dynamics of the US Indo china involvement. Pure profit motives could hardly account for this ruinous undertaking. Among the determinants for this drive are new elements of a world power balance, new attributes usurped by the executive bureaucracy, and new domestic and world domination patterns. Atten tion is drawn to the realively autonomous role of the superstructure. There is a need for further studies of the fabric, structure, and dynamics of these new phenomena in order effectively to con front them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper begins with a discussion of models in which two complementary sets of ideas are contrasted. The first set of ideas come from a political scientist, and the second set from an operational researcher. This discussion of models leads naturally to a consideration of simulations from the same two points of view. A difference between the two particular views presented here is that the political scientist views simulation as a model, while the operational researcher views simulation as experimentation on a model.In discussing the Vietnam simulation particular attention is given to the problem of selecting participants on the basis of political ideology. An important point from this discussion concerns the difficulties of trying to use such a simulation to study policy. [A fairly complete technical description of the assumptions and methodology of the simulation is also included in the Appendix.]The question of the validity of simulations in some detail. The first of these sections discusses ideas on isomorphism and homomorphism, while the second discusses ideas on validation with reference to experiences with, and outcomes from, the development runs of the Vietnam simulation. This section strengthens the earlier suggestion that the Vietnam simulation is at present best seen as a valuable heuristic and not as a policy-testing instrument.In the final policy implications sections, it is suggested that ( I ) some efforts are made to show the validity of the simulation before attempting to evaluate policies, and (2) governments concerned with the Vietnam situation use the simulation as an aid to thinking about the Vietnam situation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper is an attempt to describe in general terms the pattern of development of women's movements. One of the main problems concerns the mobilization of women to participate in such a movement. In solving this problem I find it necessary to define women first as members of a society and then as participants in a movement. I shall discuss women as a social category, as a collectivity, and as a group. Moreover I shall identify the women's movement as a collective actor and discuss two aspects of its mobilization potential: the mobilization of women in relation to each other, i.e. by their membership of a group, and in relation to the women's movement as a reference individual.The empirical data cited in the discussion should be regarded as illustrations and not, of course, as proofs. The model presented is the result of a theoretical exercise, and should be assessed on the basis of its potential value for a future empirical study of women's movements in Sweden. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this paper, a situation is examined where standard operating procedures in governmental organizations were challenged. On such occasions an organization is not simply a vehicle for solving well-defined problems as efficiently as possible. We see competing definitions of the problems, the best solutions, expertise and the rules of procedure. Outcomes are not limited to the immediate substantive outcomes. As important is the establishing of future social relationships and definitions of the situation. While classical administrative and democratic theory suggest that changes in standard operating procedures may be instantaneous, we believe this type of change to be the exception rather than the rule. In this article, it is suggested that the garbage can model at least under some conditions be an adequate descnption of the decision making in a polity experiencing challenges of established routines. This is illustrated by the decision making processes concerning the location of Norway's third medical school. In this case, new definitions of the problems involved were raised, new participants activated, and the outcome so clearly suggested by existing standard operating procedures not selected. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Intuitively it seems reasonable to assume that education may have some "treatment effect" on the individual. This paper reports some findings from a study exploring how education influences 1) information seeking, 2) number of alternatives evaluated, 3) decision time, and 4) venturesomeness in a buying situation.The following results were found - as expected - that, the higher the education the more active the use of information, the more alternatives evaluated the longer the decision time, and the more venturesome in a complex buying situation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The first part of this paper discussed the ideas of a theoretical domain and a causal locus in that domain as a philosophical basis for measurement theory. This part discusses the difficulties created for measurement theory by the fact that time plays a different role in different functional forms of equations for stating causal relations in a theoretical domain. We then turn to a redefininon and critique of traditional measurement concepts in terms of our philosophical position and of our analysis of the role of time in causal theories. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper is concerned with examining closely Kuhn's notion of paradigm, as expressed in the first edition of his book and in more recent writings. The implications of the paradigm notion for two different forms of falsification are considered, and it is argued that both Popper's and Lakatos' versions of falsification are subject to similar criticisms. Paradigms and falsification are then briefly considered in terms of their relevance for sociology. Finally, it is argued that sociologists must turn their attention to a serious consideration of the importance of language in the practice of science [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Societal-level problems often result from many individuals acting in their own self-interest rather than in the interest of the group. This paper describes an experimental game based on continued degradation of the central resource which determines each player's winnings; players elect to allow, to not allow, or to reverse the degradation by spending from their respective scores. The game was begun with either a "pure" or half-degraded central resource and was played with subjects winning amounts based on their personal scores or on the group's combined score. Results under all conditions are examined [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Causal structures involving a dynamic relation with time lags present difficulties if approached with conventional multivariate cross-sectional techniques. It is shown that customary tests for causal structure, e. g. partial correlations, break down or yield ambiguous results. Some further implications of lagged structure, and an extension of the idea to variability in space, are discussed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This is an attempt to describe one kind of social institutions, here called receptors, which handle the problem of creating functioning relations between groups of newcomers in a society and various subgroups within this society during a confron tation between such groups Such a social institution might be called a regulator, when there exists an agreement between the interest groups involved, that their goal should be a mutually acceptable situation for both groups The paper also contains an attempt to describe those ideologies with regard to the reception of newcomers, which are most likely to develop within different kinds of receptors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Within the limits set by structural arrangements and by institutions, individuals choose their course of action. Anthropologists have always been interested in the outcome of these choices either because they reflect ongoing change or because they elucidate interrelations between institu tions. In order for decision-making analysis to be more than anecdotal, however, it needs to be guided by a set of assumptions concerning reasoning and cognitive processes, and the conditions germane to them. Economists. sociologists, psychologists, philosophers and mathematicians have already outlined many useful assumptions. Part of our task in this paper is to con tribute to a systematization of those assumptions that arc most relevant to anthropological interests. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of decision analysis for social anthropology, examine the theoretical and methodological implications of "rationality," and present a sequence of hypothetical steps that we regard as requisites for an adequate decision- making analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

One of the central concerns of sociology is the study of ideology. In this paper I shall analyze the ways in which this notion is used by contemporary sociologists. This analysis will disclose a dual usage. I shall argue that this usage is restrictive and fails to do justice to all the aspects of ideology. Ideological phenomena include a minimum of three separate and distinct elements or factors. It follows that any two-factor conception of ideology is necessarily inadequate. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this paper educational careers are conceptualized as a function of the educational structure and a set of individual characteristics that comprise an individual's educational potential. Social inequality of education is defined in terms of the relationship between social origin and educational potential. Using this definition, it is shown that despite a marked increase in the number of students attaining higher education in Denmark, no change occurred in the social inequality of education. The relationship between social origin and educational potential is inferred by applying a stochastic process model in which the educational potential is assumed to govern the outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper contains in its first part an attempt at showing that certain important results of Alfred C. Kinsey's investigations can throw new light upon the problem of equality for woman and upon the relations of woman to war. The second part tries to demonstrate that the suppression of woman is not an expression of a striving for power in the man, but is his attempt at solving a difficult special sexual problem, the problem that he in the lasting sexual relation in the last half of life, is the sexually weaker. The third part points to the fact that woman is involved in the mechanism leading to war and that she therefore has responsibility in connection with war. It is explained why it is so important that woman learn to see the difference between the men's society and the secret male society. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper contains in its first part an attempt at showing that certain important results of Alfred C. Kinsey's investigations can throw new light upon the problem of equality for woman and upon the relations of woman to war. The second part tries to demonstrate that the suppression of woman is not an expression of a striving for power in the man, but is his attempt at solving a difficult special sexual problem, the problem that he in the lasting sexual relation in the last half of life, is the sexually weaker. The third part points to the fact that woman is involved in the mechanism leading to war and that she therefore has responsibility in connection with war. It is explained why it is so important that woman learn to see the difference between the men's society and the secret male society.1 [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper is concerned with the participation of formal leaders in the diffusion of innovation in a rural community in Tanzania.Weber's definition of the basis of traditional leadership indicates a diffuseness of authority, which may become enhanced by directed change, giving the formal leaders a potentiality for influencing processes of social change in general.The results show that the authority of the formal leaders extend to agri cultural matters. Through a central position in the communication structure, they have exercised strong influence in favour of adoption and thus contnbuted to a high rate of diffusion of the innovation in the community.Variations in rates of diffusion between categories of formal leaders and opinion leaders indicate that connecredness to communication networks affect rates of diffusion, but also that additional factors related to formal leader ship itself are important. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present paper is concerned with isolating certain ecological conditions requisite for the development of capitalism defined as an activity pattern characterized by the acquisition of profit through exchange transactions.In particular it is hypothesized that the emergence of capitalist activity will vary directly with the extent of competition for sustenance. Verification of this hypothesis is attempted by demonstrating that the rise of capitalist activity in western Europe was associated with such competition, whereas in China- where capitalism did not develop-agricultural conditions did not call forth such competition.It is further hypothesized that a difference between western Europe and China in type of agricultural system accounts, in part, for variation between these two areas in the development of capitalist activity. The argument is developed that the practice of large scale irrigation agriculture is an inhibiting factor in the development of capitalist activity. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Seymour Lipset summarized some evidence suggesting that upwardly mobile individuals in some Nothern European countries, including Sweden, retained the working class loyalties characteristic of their stations of origin to much greater extent than upwardly mobile individuals in some other countries. This paper presents findings from a study designed to test some of the assump tions of Lipset's interpretation of this evidence, and also offers a number of alternative interpretations taking account of macro conditions of Swedish political history and social structure as well as micro processes of ideological conviction through "cognitive vigilance". [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]