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The article comment on the criticisms by researchers J. Cohen C. M. Dayton and Donald L. Meyer on a survey paper by the author on the power of statistical tests. The major point of all the criticisms was on the supposed "after-the-fact" or post hoc usage of power. Two other issues dealing with the conditional nature of power and the reporting schemes are also mentioned. The author finds it difficult to be upset with the major points proposed by Meyer outside of misinterpretations. The author has no objections to the viewpoint presented in the paper. To some people the classical approach makes equally good sense, but the author chooses not to be pigeonholed as a "classicist" or a "Bayesian." The author believes a reasonable researcher can and should entertain all philosophical viewpoints, and select that one or several with which he is most comfortable. Once the Bayesian viewpoint is adopted, then the power issue is trivial. However, the Bayesian viewpoint has not been adopted and utilized for published research very often in the behavioral sciences.

Sociologists have contended that the primary group is an important determinant of the attitudes of its members. Although this sociological principle has received wide acceptance, it has had little impact upon public opinion research. Indeed, there is reason to doubt that it is applicable to the kinds of attitudes which are studied by the public opinion analyst. The many studies which have confirmed the principle typically have been concerned with attitudes which were immediately relevant to the manifest goals of the primary group. The code of the gang, the shared attitudes of a military unit, the allegiances and loyalties of a family, all constitute sets of attitudes which must be shared by the group members if the group is to achieve its goals. It is not surprising that primary groups exert effective pressures toward conformity with attitudinal norms when the attitudes under investigation are clearly instrumental in determining the group's success or survival. But the attitudes which are studied by public opinion research are ordinarily far less obviously essential for the maintenance of the primary group. Primary groups can and do function smoothly even though the members hold varying views concerning the control of atomic energy, farm price supports, or any of a great number of public issues. In fact, it may be doubted that any large proportion of primary groups have norms concerning such issues or exert overt pressures to gain uniformity of attitude toward such issues. It is the purpose of this paper to present a theory in which primary group pressures will be seen to influence attitudes of the type studied by public opinion research.

This article presents developments in the fields related to psychology and sociology. The annual meeting of the Midwest Sociological Society will be held in Madison on April 15-17, 1954, at the Loraine Hotel. The sectional program will be built around contributed papers. The sections which are tentatively scheduled are the following: Social Disorganization and Crime; Social Psychology; Research Methodology; Marriage and the Family; The Community; Social Structure; The Teaching of Sociology; Population and Human Ecology; and Race and Ethnic Relations. Robert Cuba Jones, from the United Nations, has gone to Mexico to engage in the private practice of technical assistance in the economic and social field. The American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama announces an award to be granted in the year 1953-1954 for the best paper dealing with research, theory, or experience, in or pertinent to Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama. Announcement has been made of the election of Meyer F. Nimkoff as Editor, and of James H.S. Bossard as Chairman of the Editorial Board of Marriage and Family Living, official journal of the National Council on Family Relations.

The article presents a study of relationships among the Protestants and Catholics in the U.S. There is a current impression that this relationship is shifting in the direction of conflict. Bases for such impression is a best-seller book potraying the Catholic hierarchy as a threat to American freedom. This paper attempts to discover what empirical evidence exists to warrant such impression, if tensions do exists then in which area they are strongest and what factors appear to underlie such tensions. The term protestant in this paper refers to persons who are members of those religious bodies such as Episcopalian and Methodist. Catholics include members of the body known officially as the Roman Catholic Church. The term tension is of psychological origin and refers to degree of disharmony.

If one may judge by the frequency of its use and the central theoretical position it is often accorded, the word "adjustment" deserves to be included among the most important terms of contemporary social analysis. Certainly few terms are more often used by social scientists, or with more evident confidence in the strict empirical meaning of what is being said. The purposes of the present paper are to suggest, first, that the meaning of adjustment is less clear than its common use might lead us to assume and second, that there are alternative meanings of adjustment which, if specified and generally agreed upon, might do much to clarify both theory and research in the social sciences. They provide their authors with distinctive titles for textbooks. They convey, in some cases, a specious sense of the greater methodological precision of the physical and biological sciences from which many were borrowed. What is perhaps more to the point is that this lavish use of synonyms has distracted attention from the remarkable obscurity to which the key term adjustment is almost invariably subject.

Emotion is aroused when a stimulus activates two or more previously acquired action patterns in such a way as to produce what is called as "motor block." This results in the release of stored energy until the motor blockade is broken. This usually produces overt motor behavior, accompanied by the various kinds of "emotionally-toned consciousness" or "psychic states" called as fear, anger, sorrow, love, etc. It may result in adequate or inadequate behavior, adjustment or maladjustment; which, depends upon past experience and habits. Popularly, it is only inadequate response that is called "emotional," but adequate rational response is just as emotional. All action depends upon movement, and since emotion is merely the mechanism by which the organism is moved, all action requires an adequate amount of emotion, i.e., release of stored energy. The more blockage, the more emotion; it is like the building up of electric potential until the resistance is overcome and the spark "jumps the gap." Usually, emotional tension explodes into overt motor behavior, either rational or irrational, so that organismic equilibrium is restored. This may be called positive or overt emotion. If such an outcome does not take place, the energy may be turned in upon the organism itself.

This article focuses on the reconstruction of educational research. The author begins this paper with a brief examination of the nature of education and the history of its relations with the behavioral sciences, especially psychology. Then, he discusses certain characteristics of the instructional process and problems involved in its study. The author concludes this paper with a review of potentially useful strategies of educational research and the institutional prerequisites for their successful implementation.

The article discusses on a study that determines the behavior of teachers and its implications to the performance of the classroom during 1960s in the U.S. The author emphasizes that the behavior of teachers can be reliably observed and it has some significant effect on the behavior of pupils. The author points out that the interrelation between the teacher and his student could be reflected to the student's achievement at a specific subject matter but not on the average achievement of the entire classroom handled by the teacher.

This paper argues that the notoriously disordered and contradictory nature of Pareto's last and greatest work, the Trattato, is largely attributable to the place he was cast in the development of European social thought. Pareto set out to construct a rationalist-positivist model in the tradition of Bentham and Comte. But his acquaintanceship with a rising intellectual tradition, generally associated with the name of Nietzsche, confronted him with psychological and individualist themes which both revealed how little human action is governed by reason, and put in question the hypothetico-deductive model of Western science and its belief in objective truth. Pareto's resulting intellectual uprootedness translated itself into his last work. This work gained the virtue of presenting an original perspective on social behaviour, but suffered at the same time from not finding a methodology appropriate to its new interests. This paper also aims to show the centrality of Nietzsche's influence on Pareto, an influence almost completely neglected in the secondary literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 22-item scale developed through the Midtown Manhattan Study is considered from methodological, substantive, and theoretical perspectives. This paper concludes that the instrument is, at best, a very incomplete measure of mental illness. A review of previous literature suggests a more reasonable interpretation is that it measures psychological stress and physical malaise, although even for these purposes it is a less than ideal measure. Use of the instrument examining the relationship between stressful life experiences and mental illness is further discouraged due to a conceptual confounding of the independent and dependent variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central issue of this paper is whether men's adult occupational experiences affect or only reflect their psychological functioning. Our analysis isolates a small set of occupational conditions, twelve in all, which defines the structural imperatives of the job. These occupational conditions are found to be substantially related to men's psychological functioning, off as well as on the job. We argue that the relationships between occupational conditions and psychological functioning result from a con continuing interplay between job and man, in which the effects of job on man are far from trivial. This argument is borne out by an assessment of the reciprocal effects of the substantive complexity of the work (a critically important occupational condition, for which we have the requisite longitudinal data) and several facets of psychological functioning. Substantive complexity has a decidedly greater impact on psychological functioning than the reverse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of early parent-child relational patterns for subsequent husband-wife relationship in marriage has been generally accepted in the fields of psychoanalysis, psychology and sociology. In studying the dominant, equalitarian and submissive roles of husband and wife in marriage, the influence of early affectional interaction to parents, therefore, will be taken into consideration. While different disciplines may have different conceptual systems in regard to the relation between early interactions and later marital roles, it seems to be of interest to find out statistically such association in a group of 589 married couples.' This paper will report the results of an investigation on the relation between young couple's conflict-attachment relationship with their own parents before marriage on the one hand, and their dominant-equalitarian-submissive role in marriage on the other. It is assumed that positive associations exist between "presence of conflict" with parents and the dominant role, and between "absence of conflict but presence of attachment" to parents and the equalitarian role in marriage.

This paper has two purposes, to differentiate between what are called "heuristic" and "empirical" typologies, and to show how the empirical typology may be derived and how it may be utilized. It scarcely needs saying that the purpose of the typology, like that of the common noun in general, is to enable the observer to perceive order in the "infinite complexity" of the universe. For example, the abstracting of fluids from the human body as a whole, the abstracting of blood from the other bodily fluids, and the typing of blood enable both understanding and control. Typologies are created by the process of noting homogeneous attributes in heterogeneous phenomena, they are created for the purpose of discovering systems. The old qualitative-quantitative issue can- not be settled in a few words. It should be noted, however, that people on both sides of the issue seem to be working towards each other. For data which are non-mensurable but are enumerable at different levels there is the analysis of variance.

The article examines the use of Bayesian statistics in an educational setting. The illustrative problem is taken from the research paper "Elementary Statistical Methods in Psychology and Education" by Paul J. Blommers and Everet F. Lindquist. The writers of the problem discuss six different solutions within the Neyman-Pearson framework of hypothesis testing. The approach taken here will be in the spirit of their solution IV. The main objection to the Bayesian approach is the insistence that research is "objective" in nature and that the use of personal probabilities is repugnant. It has been pointed out that "statistical" objectivity is only apparent, not real. Furthermore, "scientific" objectivity cannot seriously be claimed since the design of the study, the equipment, etc. are all used at the personal discretion of the investigator. The problem to be studied is itself chosen through personal decision. Certain areas of research are or are not studied partly because of certain a priori probabilities accepted by the research worker. It can also be argued that if a research worker does not have a priori notions about a phenomenon, he should not be the one to design an investigation of it.

The article presents the concept of ideology with reference to social changes. Ideologies and classes are subject to the same forces of social change which are at work on the whole structure. These two concepts are explored in this paper, including the relation of elites to ideology. When people today hear the word "ideology" they almost automatically associate it with some aspect of class consciousness or class feeling which has coloured thought or desire. Yet the word "ideology" has no necessary connection with the concepts of class and class relationship. One original significance of the word was that of the science of the sources of ideas, and this, of course, could be understood in a strictly epistemological sense. Researcher in fact distinguished two sorts of socially distorted thought and called only that which is distorted to serve the interests of a ruling, class, a status quo, and a backward harking and historically based politics by the name of Ideology. Between all positions in a hierarchically ordered social system there exists what is sometimes called social distance.

This article focuses on sociology in the English novel. Any endeavour to set forth in a few pages the sociological significance of the novel must of necessity yield results of a very meagre and imperfect kind. The title chosen for this paper seemed at first glance to fix a reasonable limit to the subject, whereas in point of fact it implies the throwing of a net over the whole field of modern fiction. The difficulty is not to discover sociology in fiction, but to find anything therein that is without sociological value and meaning. The truth obviously is that in the novel, which is the characteristic art form of modern literature the authors have the most comprehensive presentation of contemporary society but extraordinarily detailed, various and in large measure truthful. The middle period of the nineteenth century witnessed a remarkable development of the English novel. From being merely a narrative of passion, fashion, or adventure, a record of individual character and humours, it became the complex medium for psychological analysis, for ethical theory and discuss and for the description and exposition of social and economic change. The novel of to-day is in a fairly full sense the house of life and its mansions are without number.

Among the Egba-Egbado Yoruba peoples of Nigeria there are several village psychiatric treatment programs. Nigerian psychiatrists believe that such village programs have greater therapeutic and economic efficacy than treatment modalities and structures commonly found in Western society. This paper discusses the identification and assessment of social and cultural elements which enhance or detract from the therapeutic potential of the village treatment programs. Psychological, social and cultural data are utilized to suggest comparisons between Yoruba therapeutic communities and Western psychiatric communities. The potential of these programs and further refinement of the concept "therapeutic community" are also considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports results of an attempt to specify one of the circumstances in which suicide among patients in a mental hospital is most likely to occur, without having to use data which depend on retrospective evaluations of the psychological or motivational adequacy of individuals involved in caring for the patient at the time of his death. Stated simply, the relative size and turnover rates of mental hospital personnel and patient populations are shown to bear a significant relationship to the time at which the suicide occurred. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we describe the learning of psychotherapeutic skills from our observations of the training of first-year psychiatric residents in one specific hospital. This description reflects our conception of the requisite set of skills which any fully formed, presumably competent psychotherapist is expected to master in order to be accredited as a "finished product," i.e., a real professional. We identify some sources of strain involved in the first-year residents' attempts to master these particular skills, and we suggest that much of the tension experienced can be ascribed to the discrepancies between the resident's pre-training orientation towards "normal everyday" social interaction and the new demands posed by psychotherapeutic interaction. We also specify some of the adaptive strategies contemplated by residents as they come to question the efficacy of this skill system. In general, our attempt is to clarify the nature of psychotherapeutic skills and to discuss the way they serve as a pivotal point of reference for organizing the socialization experiences of first-year psychiatric residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper presents current theorizing in psycholinguistics which points up the inadequacy of the notion that verbalisms (nonsensory based words) are meaningless and detrimental to conceptual thinking in the blind. The failure to acknowledge the word-word nature of meaning is cited as the significant flaw in the development of the verbalism construct. A review of the literature indicates some of the methodological problems in research on verbalism. Suggestions for future research on the phenomenon are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Segal's recent review of the effectiveness of social work interventions is discussed in terms of (a) his analysis of the available empirical data and (b) important issues which are relevant to the assessment of all forms of psychological treatment. Re-examination of Segal's analysis per se reveals the use of some questionable statistical procedures and further suggest that his argument in favor of the relative efficacy of short-term (vs. traditional) interventions is not supported by the data. Several issues are raised which question Segal's final conclusion that the trends in the data on the therapeutic efficacy "point strongly in the negative direction." It is concluded, however, that Segal is correct in asserting the equivocality of such evidence, though for reasons not addressed in his review. Some suggestions for both the design of future work in this area and the most fruitful sorts of questions that need to be addressed are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economists have come to regard technological growth as the major basis of economic growth. This has led social scientists of many persuasions to examine the development of technology in industry with the aim of optimising the process. It has also stimulated analysis and prediction of the forces operating on industry and society due to the imperatives of technology. Existential Philosophy, as exemplified by the writings of Karl Jaspers has viewed precisely this increase in material welfare as a threat to "true individuality." More recently many social critics have condemned technology as a source of dehumanisation and political domination. The focus of most of the studies of technology has been on external factors relating to its growth. While it is apparent that the growth of technology is considerably affected by market forces, social and economic needs, and available resources, the importance of these factors does not deny the existence of an internal dynamic which also plays a major role in the development of technology. It is the purpose of this paper to make an initiating step towards an understanding of the internal structure of technology.

This article is concerned with the way in which an individual conceives his role in a situation in which a close friend has violated a moral norm. Based on two such situations, one involving theft of $500.00 and one a promiscuous premarital sex relation, a typology of roles is formulated. An effort is then made to describe some related elements of the act of selecting such a role. This article is conceived as part of the larger problem of how the mores of society become the attitudes of individuals, through being fitted into the individual's role conceptions and ideologies. There are no significant associations between the kinds of roles that the same individual assumes in the two situations. The type of role taken is related to the role played, however. Associations between ideological reference and role-playing are different. There is some suggestion of personality types reflected in the roles, including individuals who feel personally implicated in the misdeeds of others, individuals with high social responsibility orientation, and moralistic individuals with high personal loyalty. Besides being fitted into a framework of the theory of an act, the comparison of theft and sex violation provides some information relevant to a typology of moral norms.

The article focuses on the revealed difference technique to determine husband-wife interaction. It emphasizes whether the methodological innovation and the technique grew from successive sequences of pilot findings which led to research operations. The experiment was conducted on a group of couples from geographically adjacent communities in the Arizona-New Mexico area. It is concluded that the technique consists of requesting subjects to make individual evaluations of experiences shared by them. It also involves in requesting the subjects to reconcile differences in interpretations which may have occurred.

The theoretical problem of the relation between class attitudes and ethnic attitudes has been largely ignored. In the field of social action, however, this problem has had relevance, and theories that are at least implicit are apparent. There are two major positions, each with its minor variations. One of these assumes that attitudes toward ethnic groups are positively correlated with attitudes toward the lower class, the other, that attitudes toward minorities are a function of some universally applicable standard of ethical morality and are unrelated to class attitudes. Out of the great complexity of the interrelations among class and ethnic attitudes revealed in the study presented in this article, several points emerge. Basic patterns of attitudes run through three divergent samples to the point that the first seventy percent of variation within the matrix is explained. Specific patterns of attitudes toward minorities, which vary from group to group seem to make up very small part of the basic antagonism.

The article studies the concern of individual personality in understanding the relation between culture and society. The study of the individual human being is receiving increasing attention from those whose primary concern is the understanding of society and culture. This study is intended to suggest something of the type and range of material which is at present available concerning personality in the simpler societies. Personality may be broadly regarded as the total configuration of behavior or activity of a human individual, including both overt and covert and both actual and anticipatory behavior. "Personality" receives little if any notice in the leading foreign serial publications, and the same is only slightly less true of the word "individual" and its cognates. Furthermore, only a few references have been made to various aspects of personality touched upon in standard ethnological monographs, whose authors were obviously not concerned with the individual. Such works have been listed at random in order to suggest the sort of "raw material" available to those who care to ransack these sources.

The only idea common to all usages of the term institution is that of some sort of establishment or relative permanence of a distinctly social sort. The reality of institutions is only long enough to "find individuals to study who are behaving institutionally." Some let this idea stand as a sufficient definition, allowing the simplest folkways and the most elaborate "culture-complexes" to fall under the category. Psychologists incline toward such inclusive usage as would make institutions merely the social aspect of the behavior, which they describe. Sociologists are more likely to restrict usage of the term, by distinguishing institutions from simpler units of socially established behavior. Another idea fundamental to the study of human life, that of collective behavior, grows out of the fact that human beings so obviously behave in response to the behavior of each other that what the individual does can be understood only by using the collectivity as a point of reference. Institutions are sometimes defined by distinguishing them from such elementary forms of collective behavior as the crowd and the primary group, whose peculiar feature is social interaction not mediated by established forms.

Quantitative methods in social psychology represents a small subdivision of one of the subtlest problems in the field of sociology, namely, the nature of the symbolic mechanisms through which man deals to an increasing degree with his universe. These mechanisms consist of neuro-muscular sets of some kind in the human organism. When these sets, namely verbal mechanisms, correspond closely to the conditions to which one must adjust, they greatly facilitate human beings' adjustments. Now social psychology is the branch of sociology which is increasingly concerned with the linguistic behavior of man. This article deals with one type of this linguistic behavior, namely, the transition to quantitative symbolism in the domain of social psychology. One interesting by-product of this transition is the necessity of relying increasingly on written rather than spoken symbols. Many of the things that scientists wish to communicate simply cannot be adequately transmitted through oral language.

This article comments on a paper which emphasized the supposed nonresearch character of textbook writing in social psychology. It also raises some questions regarding the character of texts which the author has not settled. There are two ways of preparing a handbook in social psychology, as in any other science. One is to produce a laboratory manual and the other method is to summarize the findings of recent and earlier work in social psychology. The charge of the critic that the social psychologies still deal with out-of-date themes, such as mobs, crowds, propaganda, public opinion, suggestion, imitation and instinct. The author takes to indicate a failure to recognize that there may be two viewpoints in social psychology, each perhaps equally legitimate. Perhaps the critic is here speaking from the standpoint of the psychologist rather than the social scientist. To the social scientist crowds, mobs , propaganda, public opinion, imitation, suggestion, are very decidedly realities. They are social phenomena that must be taken into consideration and dealt with. Social psychology is a textbook term, and discerning authors keep as far away from textbook titles as possible. It is well known that the poor textbooks succeed best. Perhaps those that appear not to be textbooks at will succeed better financially.

This paper proposes a relationship between the structure of education and the major institutional forms of a society. It posits that in a society characterized by a predominance of bureaucratic organizations the criteria for health and maturity in a popular psychological perspective (neo-Freudian ideology) may correspond with the demands of bureaucracy; that the practices of one nursery school in implementing this ideology create bureaucracy-like experiences for the children in it; and that the behavior of the children in the school reflects their experience of a phenomenologically bureaucratic world. These propositions are based on participant-observation in an American nursery school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale review and integration of existing theory and research may be considered a type of research in its own right one using a characteristic set, of research techniques. This paper offers an analysis of the methodology and the importance of reviews and integrations by discussing the procedures, problems, functions, and values of this type of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 1950 social scientists have made impressive progress in clarifying and operationalizing the concept of power. The disciplines of psychology, sociology, and economics, as well as political science, have contributed to this undertaking. Strangely enough, students of international politics, who have traditionally invested so much time and effort in power analysis, have largely ignored this process. International theorists have neither contributed to nor drawn on the power literature generated by other social scientists. Some international theorists give the impression that they are rejecting the concept of power as a useful analytical tool. As a step toward linking discussions of power in the international arena with other discussions of power, this paper will attempt to review briefly the major focal points in contemporary power analysis, give a critique of the most ambitious effort to construct a model of inter-nation influence, and suggest a revision of this model.

This study deals with the difficulty of conceptually and operationally defining trust and suspicion, although it is generally acknowledged that these concepts (however defined) appear to underlie many social interactions. The paper makes a distinction between manifest trust and suspicion and the underlying subjective states. Subjective trust and suspicion are defined in terms of one party's (P's) subjective probability about anothers (O's) trustworthiness. Further, trust and suspicion as manifested were conceptualized as a function of independent variables: (1) previous experience, (2) structural and situational factors, and (3) dispositional factors. They were further thought to be mediated by two hypothetical intervening states: (1) P's perception of O's motives and/or competence, and (2) P's subjective state of trust or suspicion toward O. It was concluded that three methodological considerations must be taken into account in using the Prisoner's Dilemma game or some other non‐sum‐zero game, to study trust and suspicion. Specifically, the authors suggest, that if such a game is used it should involve sequential choices with meaningful stakes, with some measure of the hypothetical subjective state being provided. (Kee is in the Department of Psychology, Northwestern University: Knox is in the Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia.) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the theory of conflict developed by Neal Miller, and compares it with the economic theory of choice. After comparisons were made between the two models, it was found that the economic theory of choice and Miller's models of confiict differ only in the assumptions made about the existence of substitute goals. Both models employ a restrictive assumption, and that is unidimentionality of a scale for ordering options. Once this assumption is dropped, the theory which implies a distinction between short-and long-run conflict termination emerges.

This article may suggest the question whether sociology and economics should properly be regarded as distinct sciences. There is perhaps a certain liberty in the matter. It may even be legitimate to treat what are called the philosophical science, those namely the methods of which are to a large extent introspective and apriori, as all parts of one general science of mind. But there is note both of truth and of convenience in a clarification that discards this unitary conception. And according to the same criteria sociology and economics may be best treated as independent sciences. It is true that actually the sociological and economic aspects of society are very intimately blended. But the blending is even more intimate in the case of sociology and psychology, which are generally held to be distinct sciences. The question then arises how are sociology and economics to be distinguished, what is the proper sphere of each. The distinction the author would make is that economics consider the material environment so far as modified, utilized, controlled or capable of being so handled. Beyond this the material environment cannot furnish economic wealth and does not come within the sphere of economics.

When the Council of the Sociological Society approved of the project of a Conference on the Correlation of the Social Sciences, and Oxford was chosen as place, the author looked forward eagerly to the event, both for the sake of the discussions, and as an opportunity of meeting the professed students of sociology from all parts of the country. It seemed to be generally accepted that geography, as the study of the natural environment of human communities, is basic in social science. In the case of biology there seemed throughout to be a good deal of confusion between two processes that appear to me to be very different --the taking over into one science of results achieved in another, and the assimilation of one science to another in method and outlook. Two other ideas of importance were put forward in the region of psychology. One is the correlation of social activities and institutions with the results of physical anthropology, the -development, in fact, of a new racial psychology. There is much uncertainty and even confusion about the field actually covered by these sciences. Jurisprudence touches the interpretation of the law of the land- -a very special and separate study; but it has a philosophical side, and is also a study of fundamental social institutions, closely related to social Anthropology. Economics includes the first-hand observation of economic institutions, and also the very abstract mathematical theory of economics. Political science, as presented at the Conference is akin to sociology in many respects; but in many minds it seems to imply nothing more than a study of the facts of constitutional history.

The article says that the occupation of the engineer puts him in a position to contrast his own well-ordered modes of doing things with the apparent confusion of the business, political and social world. In the enquiring and critical mood that follows this contrast, the engineer naturally turns for illumination to the writings of economists, sociologists and political philosophers. In these books he finds little that can compare with the definiteness and verifiability of the theoretical and descriptive writings that underlie his own professional activities. Hence the contrast between the practice of politic; business: and. social affairs and the practice of engineering is further sharpened and accentuated by the speculative and scientific contrast of the corresponding literature. Hence there results a flow of books, essays, memoirs, which are in the nature of a direct application of the physical sciences to the social field, with such subsidiary illumination from history, psychology, anthropology, as the, particular writer happens to command.

This article provides the author's view concerning the relation between sociology and psychology. I use the term psychology for the science which deals with mental phenomena, conscious and unconscious. Passing now to the meaning I attach to the term sociology, the first point to notice is that just as it is possible to describe any of our daily actions as individuals without any reference to the motives which prompt these actions, so is it possible to describe the actions of human beings as members of society without reference to motives. It will, I trust, have become evident that the distinction I seek to make between sociology and social psychology is essentially one of method. To me, as to most students of the subject, the final aim of the study of society is the explanation of social behaviour in terms of psychology. The other reason which justifies the sociologist in using psychological terms in his definitions is that the sociologist has taken into his vocabulary a number of terms in general use which have definite psychological implications. It is evident that the logical processes involved in this study of social behaviour as a step towards the discovery of psychological laws is far from simple.

This article focuses on the research on behavioral or psychological effects of environmental manipulation. Conceptualization of these effects requires considerable abstractness and is substantially more complex and less visible and implementation often presents difficulty. Experimental control of infant locomotion was investigated in relation to visual and tactual environmental manipulation. Research reviewed on the thermal and crowding aspects of the environment is also of perhaps limited inferential value to the psychology of instruction.

This article presents a review on the psychological theory as a determiner of experimental pattern in child study. The combination of inadequate theoretical grounding and social urgency has resulted in overgeneralization and inappropriate generalization of research. A methodological study involving introductory psychology students found that the order of requesting memories determined whether more pleasant or unpleasant memories were recalled. They also demonstrated that the primary factor in recall seemed to be intensity, where the more intense experiences, regardless of their pleasant or unpleasant nature, were recalled earlier than less intense experiences. The childhood memory area had produced results which support moderately the psychoanalytic conceptions of infantile amnesia and repressions; but the degree of fit manifested must be viewed skeptically due to common methodological errors.

This article reviews published reports on experimental studies on problems of method in teaching psychology, educational psychology and courses in education. The studies here reviewed have not contributed much in new and significant information relative to the problems of method of teaching psychology and education courses. These studies are, however, valuable as showing that results obtained in the somewhat artificial setting of the laboratory also hold practically. In this review the author outlines the result of these studies in a precise manner.

This articles identifies the problems of teacher's preparation in relation to education, psychology, and professional training, including prediction of success, selection and organization of curriculum materials, marks and examinations, construction and validation of standardized and new-type tests, classification and grouping of students, and administrative plans and adjustments.

What we have seen so far in this section, then, is that self-defeating behavior characterizes those task groups facing the most uncertainty, that this behavior is self-defeating in terms of group members' needs both to relate in satisfying and necessary ways to their tasks and to each other, and that the double-binding incongruent communication patterns associated with them are strikingly similar to those observed in severely disturbed families, In my next paper, I will discuss the practice of task group therapy itself, the process of intervening in and improving self-defeating groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which attempts to delineate some areas of agreement and disagreement in the evaluation of the same patient by groups of clinicians with varying professional training, experience, and preference of for a given theoretical system. The paper is limited to a report on the clinicians evaluations of the verbalizations of the two patients. Differences between the clinicians' judgments were examined for systematic trends. Results demonstrates that regardless of accuracy, clinicians are characterized in their assessment of the concerns of a patient by certain kinds of biases which result to selective observations.

The article presents a discussion about attitude behavior consistency. Essentially, the researcher's comments consist of three criticisms which deal with the final third of the author's paper. One, he asserts that he confuse mathematical dependence and statistical interaction of independent variables; two; he argues that this confusion results in his obscuring the identity of the consistency and interaction conceptualizations; three, he objects to the forms the author used to express various conceptualizations. The interaction conceptuaIization assumes that neither attitude nor social support has an independent effect on behavior. According to the author if social support is congruent with attitudes, the effect of social support on behavior, will reinforce the effect of attitudes, thus, increasing attitude-behavior consistency; on the other hand, if social support is incongruent with attitudes, the effect of social support will counterbalance the effect of attitudes, thus, decreasing attitude behavior consistency.

In the first of the two gaming papers in the June 1, 1970 issue of the journal Conflict Management, a researcher subjects the Prisoner's Dilemma paradox to a searching analysis. He reviews three proposed resolutions, based respectively on professor Nigel Howard's theory of the metagame, the infinitely iterated game and the game of economic survival. Actually, the contradiction is only apparent, but it is difficult to point out the error that has led to the apparent contradiction. The nub of the paradox is in that error. For instance, Zeno's error was in the tacit assumption that an infinite sum of space or time intervals must be infinite; for that is what it means to say that Achilles can never pass the tortoise. Zeno made this error because he had no concept of the converging infinite series; nor did anyone, as far as one knows, until possibly Archimedes. Paradoxes are not resolved by showing that the contradiction vanishes if one pursues another line of reasoning. Paradoxes are resolved if one exhibits the error that led to the apparent contradiction in the first place.

The unsatisfactory nature of traditional wage theory as an explanation for interfirm differences in wages is probably so well known as to need no comment. Less obvious, however, has been the nature of the analysis that could be substituted in its place. Drawing upon the empirical studies of labor markets made by, among others, Myers, Shister, Reynolds, Shultz, and himself, Professor Lester advances the hypothesis that theoretical analysis of wage structures must recognize and explain a range of wage rates as the normal characteristic of the labor market, rather than the one rate postulated by older theory as the sine qua non of equilibrium. Richard A. Lester is professor of economics, Princeton University. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]