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Deals with the position paper presented to the President's Committee on Health Education in Boston, Massachusetts on January 6, 1972 concerning health promotion in the U.S. Basis of the health promotion recommendations of the paper; Importance of having a massive consumer health education effort; Establishment of state health education training centers.

In this paper we apply some multivariate statistical methods to the problem of personnel planning in a hospital. We first determine the average day of activities of a nurse team for a given health care unit and then we compare the activities of two different health care units. Personnel planning is simpler when some care units can be considered equivalent from the point of view of activities. The techniques presented in this paper can prove effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a discussion on attitudes of undergraduate students. This paper is a report of a study of (1) attitudes of senior students in the University of Chicago toward prohibition, God, pacifism, communism, and birth control, (2) the relation between intelligence of undergraduates and their attitudes on these questions, and (3) the inter-relation of these attitudes. A fourth phase of the study was to find out whether undergraduates in different divisions of study differ markedly in their attitudes toward these social questions. The experimental data were collected during the school year 1931-32. Professor L.L. Thurstone and associates developed the attitude scales used. In as much as the technique for the construction of these scales is described in "The Measurement of Attitudes," by L.L. Thurstone and E.J. Chave, it need not be described here. Each scale consists of 20 or 22 statements, which express gradations of thought and feeling from one extreme to another. Each statement has a determined scale value.

This article describes the contraceptive usage of the wives of Melbourne; a portrait of birth control in Sydney would undoubtedly be very similar and indeed the picture is probably a faithful representation of the situation throughout the greater part of Australia. Apart from the evidence it presents on Melbourne, the chief contribution of this paper lies in two methodological innovations. The first is the use of "main" method of family planning for specified time periods; the "main" method being defined as the method used for the greatest proportion of time during the period. The second innovation is the analysis of the contraceptive practice of those women who were not knowingly infecund at the time. By coding separately those women who were not practising birth control but believed themselves to be fecund and those who were using nothing but believed themselves to be infecund, researchers have a reasonable base from which to calculate those at risk of practising contraception. A analysis shows that levels of family planning practice have been largely a function of the period and the technology, and, with the exception of the very young still without children or pregnant at marriage and the older women with increasingly impaired fecundity, the levels of practice have varied little with age. Total practice has increased steadily so that the proportion of fecund women employing some family planning method rose from about two-thirds at the end of the 1940's, to almost three-quarters at the end of the 1950's to nine-tenths in the early 1970's.

In this paper, which is based on an enquiry carried out in twenty villages in Southern Poland, the author investigates the fertility of two consecutive generations of peasant women. He shows that the richer the couple are, the more children they have. This is due to the earlier marriage of wealthier peasant girls, who thus begin to bear children sooner, and also bear them more frequently and for a longer period. This trend was very noticeable in the earlier generation, but shows signs of weakening in the present generation because of the spread of birth control which was first accepted among the richer peasants. Rich peasant couples not only produce more children, but a greater proportion of their children remain in agriculture. Larger peasant farms are thus sub-divided mote quickly than smaller ones, and a low standard of living results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes developments in French policy on contraception and abortion during the occupation and since the liberation. It includes an account of the relevant legislation and the resulting medical, judicial and police activity, as well as some information regarding abortees and abortionists. The latter, of necessity, relates only to cases which have come to the attention of the authorities or the public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a role analysis of the hospital administrator. Throughout history, hospitals have intrigued men, offering a unique life situation and, whether challenging or revolting him, providing various insights into the complex nature of the human animal. Who should be in command of today's hospitals and how their operation should be conducted is still in question. This paper briefly explores contemporary hospital administration with reference to the professional training and the social role of the administrator. In their study of medical care, the various sub-disciplinary areas such as medical sociology, occupations, complex organizations, and professions have neglected the hospital administrator. The social structure of the hospital has changed substantially in the last fifteen years, with the administrator making great gains in power and prestige. The hospitals of today and the administrator's tasks, professional training, leadership problems, aspirations, and authority relationships need to be examined. Most crucial is the constant potential conflict between the administrator and the staff of physicians.

Based upon research in an alcoholism treatment organization, the study explores the impact of interdisciplinary team treatment on organizational participants and structure. The findings suggest that alternate organizational arrangements are necessary for organizations which use the team method. The implications of team treatment for professionals were confounded because of power relationships within the organization. Role bargaining between professionals was observed to be virtually non-existent because of the dominance of a single discipline. A surprising finding was the extent to which supervisory personnel were disadvantaged in the study. Caution is suggested for those organizations most likely to adopt the team method, large public health organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers one such rule, recently introduced to bring about horizontal equity in the Hospital Services of England, in terms of its logical basis and ability to achieve and sustain this equity.
The development of the National Health Service since 1948 has involved increases in overall expenditure on the Hospital Services persistently accompanied by wide variations between regions in the standards of hospital care and the levels of revenue allocations. These differences have their origins in the unequal distribution of income and charity prior to 1948, but their continuation has been an effective barrier to the achievement of the equitable service intended 'to secure improvement in the physical and mental health of the people'.[1] They have remained largely because of the method of funding hospitals, used from 1948 until recently. Regional Hospital Boards received an annual sum sufficient to maintain their existing services (with an allowance to counter-cost inflation) plus a margin for any special requirements accepted by the then Ministry of Health as necessary or desirable (including a share in additional funds to counter regional differences). Meanwhile, the hospital building programme has continued to improve the capital stock of the Hospital Service, and in part to reduce differences in the regional availability of beds. It follows from this incremental method of funding that relatively well-provided regions receive allocations sufficient to maintain their relative advantages rather than to reduce them, so that the variations that existed prior to 1948 were embodied in the service from the outset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many scientific investigations, it is desired to bring together, or link, two or more documents which represent the same individual, even though these documents do not contain a unique identifier and were derived from different sources. In medical and public health research and elsewhere, this problem is known as the document linkage problem. This paper considers some aspects of classifying pairs of documents into one of two populations when their items are identifying information, where each item of information can take on three distinct values correct, incorrect or missing. Section I identifies three document linkage problems. Sections 2 and 3 deal with the mathematical formulation of the multivariate document linkage problem. Section 4 gives the classification procedure and Section 5 deals with the application of the theory to a problem in the field of public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on various activities of the American College Health Association (ACHA) in the U.S. The first general session of the Forty-first Annual Meeting of the ACHA was started with the presentation of the paper "Modern Problems in Medical Ethics." A joint meeting of the ACHA's Committee on Tuberculosis, Section on Clinical Medicine and Section on Nursing Service was conducted on April 24, 1963. The second council meeting of the ACHA was held on April 25, 1963.

The article makes an attempt to derive statistically the pattern of consumption associated with a stationary population in the U.S. and compares it with that of a society characterized by a growing population. While this line of inquiry will not resolve all issues associated with the impact of the cessation of population growth upon the economy it should shed some light on the extent of economic adjustments required, were population growth to cease. The important conclusion to be drawn is that the age and size variables affect relative consumer spending in contradictory ways. For twelve of the 23 categories of consumer expenditure the impact of ageing associated with the stationary population is opposite to the impact of the reduction in the size of the spending units. There are only five categories of consumer expenditure in which both the age and size shifts associated with the movement from a growing to a stationary population would tend to increase the relative importance of this item in the overall pattern of consumer behaviour. These categories are "other shelter," "owned dwelling," "medical care," "reading" and "other expenditure."

This paper examines the traditional stance taken by Monnon Church authorities regarding birth Control. Special attention is given to the theological context used as a justification for pro-natalist benefits. Previous research which treats Mormons as a special sub-group in KAP studies is reviewed. We find that while the stance of Church leaden has been consistent historically, the college-educated Mormon is more accepting of family planning to-day than previously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on birth variations in populations which practice family planning. Birth control is obviously a prerequisite for any substantial variations in the timing of births, and the smaller the total number of children born in a cohort, the greater are the possibilities for accelerating or postponing the births of the children. The expression "family planning" is usually taken to be synonymous with limitation of the numbers of births, but may also be taken to include the timings of births. Although it is well known that variations in the timing of births for the cohorts presently in the childbearing ages may cause changes in the number of births which occur in a particular calendar year, it is still common, not only among laymen, to draw far-reaching conclusions with regard to reproduction etc., from fertility data covering a single calendar year or some few years only. The present paper aims at demonstrating, with illustrations for Sweden, that even quite small variations in the timing of births have a considerable effect on the number of births occurring in a particular calendar year and, furthermore, at discussing the opportunities for drawing conclusions about fertility and reproduction from period data.

The article reports on the politics of medicine in the People's Republic of China. It is noted that medical care in this country, most notably in rural areas, had been of degrading quality. Added to this is the fact that there are few trained medical personnel to suffice even the minimal health needs. Relative to this, improvement of the health standard of China's people had been an aim of the People's Republic of China. Cooperative medical service programs were introduced, and the value of traditional Chinese medicine, in combination with Western health techniques, were encouraged and the training of subprofessional health personnel was undertaken.

The article discusses the author's experience in attending the fifteenth anniversary celebration of the founding of the People's republic of China. She stressed that such opportunity allows her to observe the varied facets of contemporary Chinese health and medical practices in the country. She acknowledges the excellent facilities for research at Peking Medical College. Furthermore, she appreciates the dedication of medical practitioners in the country despite their low income.

The article reports on the uses of atomic energy in the medical field. Radioactive isotopes were discovered to be helpful in the treatment of certain diseases. There are two elements whose isotopes are studied and proven to be therapeutically useful. The two elements are iodine and phosphorus. These elements are useful in the treatment of non-cancerous medical disorder and a form of cancer. The radioactive isotopes of iodine helps in the treatment of a thyroid gland disorder while the radioactive isotopes of phosphorus helps in the treatment of leukemia.

A content analysis was performed on essays written by undergraduate students who, via a college practicum course, had spent a prolonged period of time with emotionally disturbed patients in a nearby mental hospital. The essays were specifically designed to elicit information about the students' changes in religious belief and behavior following the experience. While the changes in formal doctrine and theological concepts were minimal, many reported changes of a personal nature, especially in the direction of increased seriousness and maturity. The experience led many to re-examine previous religious ideas, and led to an enlargement of their thinking and behavior in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on an investigation of patients and opinion of staffs concerning the effectiveness of neuro-psychiatric hospital staff members. Some of the most important factors in the successful treatment of neuropsychiatric patients operate during the hours of the day, which are not taken up with specialized somatic or semantic therapies. There is general agreement among hospital administrators that the selection of well-qualified people for these jobs is a matter of importance, but there are to date no published reports of systematic attempts to establish standards which will facilitate effective selection procedures. If one adopts the stereotype of the psychotic as a completely unreasonable person it would seem ridiculous to attach any importance to his judgments. The atmosphere that the aides create is one that the patients must contend with as they continue in or emerge from their illnesses. These tasks are complex and it is to be expected that accurate assessment of the skill with which they are carried out would be difficult. The best evaluation of aides can be achieved by combining the opinions of patients and staff.

soldier was 1. This study has shown that the more intelligent generally heavier and taller than the less intelligent, when intelligence is defined by a score on the Army General Classification Test. 2. If the magnitude of linear correlation between weight and height is equated with bodily symmetry, the Colored soldier was the best proportioned of all the various racial and linguistic groups in the Ninth Service Command Special Training Center. 3. There were, generally, no significant differences in the weight or height of trainees in the Center who were graduated as opposed to those duller ones who could not attain the literacy standards set by the Army and were consequently discharged as inapt. Apparently the scatter in intellectual functions between the two proportions of illiterates dichotomized in this fashion was too narrow to reveal a true difference. 4. No causative relationship is to be inferred from the demonstrable correlation of weight and height with intelligence. Diet, medical care, climate, type of occupation, and many other factors may be the responsible agents. It may also be that superior biological inheritance is shown in certain physical indices, such as weight and height, as well as in intellectual keenness; thus both may be derived from a common hereditary factor. 5. Many marked and significant differences in mean height and weight for various linguistic and racial groups are shown; such differences are, however, to be expected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigates the social and cultural factors responsible for the problem of uneven geographical distribution of medical care in Ghana in the 1960s. Geographical distribution of doctors in early 1969; Percentage of in-patients from stated geographical source at each hospital in 1966; Reasons for the imbalance in the geographical distribution of doctors.

This article attempts to find official and unofficial expectations concerning the care of the sick. In addition to the nature of illness, social factors also have an influence on the patient's seeking treatment. The poor and those who have difficult access to medical care do not seek treatment so often as do those living in more advantageous conditions. Thus one can see that the actual behaviour in connection with illness varies from group to group. The public health nurse, there are 1445 public health nurses or one per 3100 inhabitants in community care in Finland, often has to estimate whether a patient ought to be attended to by a physician, or a nurse, or to be sent into a hospital. Her estimation can be considered as representative of the official idea of when people should seek medial treatment. Her judgment is probably based mostly on medical considerations. The patient and his family, on the other hand, have their own, unofficial view about the necessity of seeking treatment. The official and the unofficial conception may be in agreement but they need not be.

The purpose of this article is to present a survey in an ecological context of the livelihood and diet of the Bayano Cuna Indians with emphasis on the importance of native animals in their diet. To achieve the latter greater emphasis is given to hunting and fishing than to other livelihood activities. The Bayano Cuna Reservation Occupies approximately 450 square miles of a humid tropical forest area in eastern Panama. The Indians have discouraged the introduction of modern medicines and medical practices into their territory and are largely dependent upon their medicine men for the treatment of illness.

The article presents information on the demographic history of the Northern European Countries in the eighteenth century. The remarkable statistics of the Northern countries available for the greater part of the eighteenth century give demographers valuable information on population structure and developments. The main cause of the changes in population development was changes in economic conditions, and harvest results were of special importance. Not only do mortality and nuptiality seem to have been influenced but also fertility, and birth control may not have been without importance in the Northern countries during the period. In many respects the structure of the population in the Northern countries differed fundamentally from that prevailing nowadays in the same areas. Thus the age distribution was quite different, with comparatively many young people; a large proportion of the adult population were married because nuptiality was high not only among spinsters and bachelors but also among widowed persons; legitimate fertility was high and illegitimate fertility low; and mortality was high, especially infant mortality.

The article focuses on the history of the School Meals Service. During the latter part of the nineteenth century reformers had become increasingly aware of the poor home conditions of many children, and their weak physical state. Many people during the nineteenth and early years of the twentieth centuries had feared that such a service as feeding school children might destroy family responsibility and the values of family life. Supporters of school feeding and the school medical service had not only to fight apathy and ignorance, but the criticism of those who strongly believed in the importance of maintaining the unity and independence of the family. Very few authorities had organized a School Meals Service by the First World War, but during this War and the subsequent depressions of the 1920s the numbers increased. During the 1930s the numbers fell. The necessity of feeding large numbers of children during the Second World War, however, animated the demands for a better service, and the 1944 Education Act made it obligatory for local education authorities to provide a School Meals Service.

Presents a study of encephalitis. Causes of encephalitis; Stages of encephalitis; Classification of therapies for the treatment of encephalitis.

Until a relatively short time ago, health programmes undertaken in the less developed countries consisted primarily of curative measures. It has been possible to adopt preventive measures on a wide scale in these regions only in the last decade or so. The urban communities were the first to benefit from programmes aimed at eradication of parasitic diseases, and the declines in mortality have reflected the urban achievements in this area of public health. Work in rural communities began much later, but important results have been realized from the health programmes and community development projects undertaken in these areas over the past few years. Nevertheless the task of raising rural health standards is so great, especially in the emerging countries of Africa, that accomplishments to date do not represent much more than token progress vis-à-vis the work that remains. The prospects for closing the gap in health conditions between urban and rural inhabitants of the developing countries have been improved considerably by the shift in emphasis from the economic development of these countries to their balanced economic and social development. The United Nations Economic and Social Council has stressed the importance of this approach to the problem of national development.51 Thus, not only is it advocated, inter alia, that public health and the medical and environmental conditions affecting health should be improved as the population of cities increases, but also that adequate attention should be given to health care and environmental conditions in rural areas. Hence, the close relationship between health status of urban and rural people has now been recognized in many countries. Governments of the less developed countries are already augmenting the funds, personnel and other resources formerly available for rural health projects.52 Other encouraging signs are that the technical and financial assistance needed for these programmes is available through international organizations, individual, industrialized countries and private philanthropic agencies. International fellowships are available for the training of health personnel, and great progress is being made in the diagnosis and treatment of tropical diseases. The estimate that one-half of the population of tropical, rural areas is exposed to the risk of yaws53 is startling, but less so now that effective antibiotics are available at a low cost. Fertility is very high in the countries of Africa and Latin America, particularly, and it is probably higher in rural than in urban areas. The declines in rural mortality that are certain to occur in response to intensified rural health campaigns will, along with high fertility, bring about an increase in the rate of population growth in both rural areas and cities. The difficulty of attempting to raise health standards or living standards in general, at a faster rate than the population is growing, is well known to administrators in these countries. Recognition of the need for policy with respect to population growth and positive action in this area will greatly enhance the possibilities for even more remarkable improvements in health standards of both rural or urban communities of these countries than have been realized in the recent past. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article an attempt is made to assess the major health problems of the second half of the twentieth century in developed countries, the methods appropriate to these problems, and the pattern of medical services necessary to deal with them. From an examination of mortality and morbidity trends it is suggested that the most important problems are likely to be the mortality, malformation and disability established before birth, mental illness, and the disease and disability associated with aging. Reasons are given for doubting whether control of breeding, the method that has contributed greatly to the improvement of plants and other animals, can be expected to be effective in the case of man and hence reliance must continue to be placed on modifications of the environment to which achievement hitherto has been entirely due. Profound changes will be needed in the pattern of services through which medical knowledge is applied, the most important being unification of the major classes of hospitals, acute, mental and chronic; association of the preventive personal health services with curative services; and the strengthening of domiciliary medical care, particularly through a new and more intimate relationship between general practitioner and hospital services.

The circumstances of developing countries are very different from those of the industrializing West in the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, Western experience is relevant in improving public health in developing societies today. Requirements have to be interpreted in terms of local circumstances. But the broad needs are common, namely satisfactory water supplies, the disposal of waste materials, and the improvement of housing. And the means of implementation still require the enforcement of law; the establishment of an efficient machinery of government to meet the needs of health and safety; and the creation of an educated and understanding community. How are environmental functions to be distributed in the administrative services of a developing country, and in what way can Western experience help in this decision? One or two useful answers to this difficult question are gradually emerging as a result of the application of studies to the problems on the spot. The first, and in many respects the most important, is that environmental services grow best when they are firmly rooted in community life. In town and country alike these services are an indispensable part of the community program and the keenness of the local residents is the only real guarantee of continuing success.

The history of public health changes is taken forward from 1900 to 1950. This was a period of important development in a population in which most of the adult members had at the outset of the period experienced compulsory primary education; when the full effects of industrial development had made their mark on the nation's health and, at last, on the public conscience; when the force of social and economic factors in producing and perpetuating disease was becoming appreciated; and when community responsibility for the health and welfare of the individual was becoming accepted. Not surprisingly, great improvements were made in the scope of preventive and curative services and in their accessibility. But the most important factor in the improvement of the national health was the steady rise in the level of living of the population, especially during the last two decades of the period. This article discusses several issues related to public health changes in England and Wales. Among the main contributions to the progress of public health have been (1) compulsory primary education which has enabled the population to absorb health education and to apply the simple truths preached by the public health pioneers of the nineteenth century (2) the reduction of poverty and the concomitant improvement in nutrition and in the provision of other material needs; etc.

This article focuses on several issues related to public health in Great Britain in the nineteenth century. The nineteenth century was a time of paradox, the third quarter, generally regarded as an age of unprecedented prosperity, also reached high-water levels of mortality and pauperism. Everywhere was much that was squalid. The popular attitude to health was less than enthusiastic and administrative machinery was largely ineffective. Such machinery as there was, was busily occupied with attempts to mitigate gross environmental abuses. But the stage was being set for major advances in personal health services that came with the new century. The growth of health and social welfare in Great Britain in the nineteenth century makes fascinating study. Mostly, of course, the process was one of slow, straightforward evolution; but occasionally events took strange turnings, swayed by conflicting pressures. Already quite early in the century more of the people of Great Britain were chiefly engaged in trade, manufacture or handicrafts than in agriculture, though Wales was still an exception.

This article focuses on the manufacture and retailing of contraceptives in England. The techniques have arisen out of the birth control experience of this and other western countries, where the increasing popular demand for contraception during the last eighty years has been supplied largely by commercial interests. What these interests have been and how they have developed is one of the major unexplored areas in birth control history. The sharp decline in the English birth rate after 1876 and the enormous increase in the sales of the Knowlton pamphlet are the indices usually quoted in assessing the social impact of this event. The increasing popular demand for contraceptives during the first quarter of the twentieth century brought about a multiplication of retail outlets, an abundance of variations on the basic established products but few significant innovations in technique or improvements in manufacture.

This article examines specific characteristics of adoptive parents of hard-to-place children and how successful the adoptions have been thus far. Information gathered for this study might serve as a guideline in the development of agency policy. Exposing the satisfactions and problems encountered by the parents might be helpful to other adoptive parents. An indication of specific characteristics of adoptive parents which seem to be associated with "successful" adoptions might also offer the adopted child an increased chance to make a good adjustment. Added stresses might be expected in the family with hard-to-adopt children. For instance, there is the potential problem of racial identity for the black or biracial child in the white home. A child who is physically handicapped may require more monetary means since many children, handicapped in this way, appear to need medical aid or professional counseling. Couples adopting transracially may face negative community and family reactions regarding the mixing of races in a family.

The article discusses the role of medical care in a changing social system. The concern about the rising cost of medical care and the growing importance of that care makes it necessary to examine the role medical care plays in a complex society. The apparent cause of increasing medical expenses is linked to the increasing demand of better care by the people for their personal well-being. There are a number of forces operating together as medical care costs increase. First, there is the general level of advancement and complexity of the social system itself. Heart lung machines, renal dialysis, and pacemakers are artifacts of highly developed technologies. Advanced technology is the necessary cause of an effective medical care system. At the same time, the increasing complexity of the social system provides the sufficient cause for an increased allocation of resources to medical care. As societies become more complex, they devote a greater proportion of their resources to medical care, but the medical care of all members of a society is not affected equally.

The article presents a preliminary statement of a frame of reference for the collection and utilization of ethnographic and documentary data. This framework was developed as part of a six-year study of the Illinois zone center program. The Illinois Department of Mental Health has been decentralized into eight zones, with model comprehensive treatment facilities in some of the zones. Active community planning is emphasized. The overall study collates survey, interview, and records data to portray a comprehensive picture of the total community system for mental health care and control. The design of the study approximates the classic before/after with control model. Two counties are included, one served by one of the new zone mental health centers, and the other not. Baseline observations have been taken at the start of the study and will be repeated in another three years. In very general terms these data include: patient-flow data, mental patient careers, mental patient knowledgeability and attitudes, public attitudes and knowledgeable of services and facilities, referral patterns, and knowledgeable of frontline professionals such as physicians, clergymen, attorneys, peace officers and others.