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The purpose of this article is to study the effectiveness of the three techniques commonly employed for collecting data to be used in evaluating personality adjustment. The interview technique portrays the personality appraisement approach resorted to by most specialists as psychologists, clinicians, and counselors. This technique endeavors to diagnose personality characteristics on the basis of verbal responses, appearance, individual testing, personal contact, and the like. The interview technique as used in this study consisted of a personalized administration of each test during which time ample opportunity was given the student to discuss his understanding of the test situations and the nature of responses made to them. People frequently question the effectiveness of many of the personality evaluating techniques utilized in guidance programs. Since guidance practice generally relies upon the use of one personality evaluating technique, it is essential to know which technique provides the most effective diagnosis of student adjustment not only in the school situation but in other environments as well.

The article focuses on the dissolution of the patient-society dualism. But in science dualisms can be dissolved only by theoretical formulations of such character as to bring both members of the dualism within reach of one set of invariants. While anthropologists and sociologists have tried to eliminate the society individual dualism from their thinking, it persists in the clinic where the psychiatrist deals largely with individuals and not with social processes. The psychiatrist's daily experience impresses upon him the fact that many current statements about the nature of society and its relation to behavior disorder are not liable to help him in treating emotionally disturbed persons. Since, however, behavior patterns are given final form by social processes, it becomes the task of science to bring together understandings of social and intrapsychic processes so that both can be used in the clinical situation. This requires a set of invariants that will have meaning in the frame of reference of both the social sciences and psychiatry and the establishment of one has been attempted in this article.

The study reported in this paper presents some additional questions concerning Miller and Bieri's vigilance hypothesis. By using randomly generated shapes rather than people as stimuli, it was felt that a replication of previous findings would bring into question the assumption that person perception is necessarily the underlying process being investigated in previous research. Since disliked shapes were perceived more complexly than liked ones (replicating a phenomenon found when persons are used as stimuli), the generality of the vigilance hypothesis was questioned. These results, then, were viewed as supporting the alternative justification hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses one of the methodologies of social psychology. In this method social psychology is studied in relation to economics, ethics and religion. The importance of biology for the psychology of social conflict, for example, the satisfaction of instincts and the reduction of fatigue, is generally recognized--although frequently in particular cases it is ignored. All that the social scientists need do in this connection therefore, is to urge that the contribution of biology to the full truth be not ignored in any case in which it is a factor. Geology, chemistry, and physics are important for the psychology of social conflict almost exclusively through economics; so it is not necessary for us to consider the former sciences directly in this paper. Astronomy is important, almost exclusively through the light, which it throws on methods of thought and the nature of essential experience. These matters they have already considered; so they need not consider such a science as astronomy directly in this paper. But the full truth about the relationship between economics and ethics and social psychology is not generally recognized, and the relationship is direct; so we must consider that relationship if we are to master the psychology of social conflict.

Ordinarily an anniversary occasions the reification of an artificial period. In this case however, there is a certain juncture in the history of the point of view which makes of the past quarter-century something worthy of consideration for symbolic interactionism as well as for our celebration of the founding of the Midwest Sociological Society. The year 1937 lies virtually in the middle of a four-year period which saw the publication of Mind, Self, and Society, Movements of Thought in the Nineteenth Century, and The Philosophy of the Act. It would represent the greatest naiveté to suggest that thus the year 1937 represented the introduction of symbolic interactionism. We are all aware of the long development: from James, Baldwin, and Cooley to Thomas, Faris, Dewey, Blumer, and Young. Even the Tardean imitation and suggestion which underlay Ross's Social Psychology contributed a good deal ordinarily not credited to him in the development of interaction theory. Nor is it the fact that Mead represents the fullest development of the orientation that makes so significant the posthumous publication of his works (for which we may conveniently take 1937 as an anchoring point). Mead's ideas had been known for a very long time. He had taught University of Chicago students from 1893 to 1931. His notions were bruited about in classes and seminars wherever there were professors conducting them who had studied at the University of Chicago—not least in the great heartland included in the Mid-west of our Society. Some of Mead's students had published their versions of his ideas or quotations from some of his philosophical papers—Kimbali Young's Source Book in Social Psychology of a decade earlier contained a paper by Mead, and his Social Psychology bore the strong imprint of Meadian interactionism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A trend toward increasing use in geographical research of methods and concepts developed and tested in other social sciences seems likely to provide new insights into the effects of weather and climate on human behavior. Psychological reactions of a sample of Great Plains wheat farmers to the threat of a sudden storm are examined by means of a variant of the Thematic Apperception Test. The pictured situation is assessed as an unpredictable environmental press potentially in opposition to the inner need to achieve. The primary reaction to the threat is the mobilization of one's own resources towards rational, task-oriented action. However, uncertainty remains and this is reflected in a subsidiary theme in which attempts to alleviate anxiety are made by the essentially religious appeal to transcendental powers to lessen or stay the environmental threat. It is suggested that the TAT could prove useful for measuring many aspects of the man-environment relationships including that of regional personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the information contained in the author's paper "Soviet Psychology and Psychiatry" discussed at a symposium on Soviet Science. It is in the context of Pavlonian principles that psychology as a major discipline in Soviet Union should stand on, a move which abrogated the concepts of psychology contained in Rubenshtein's book "Bases of General Psychology". The Pavlonian session was a step towards institutionalizing the Pavlovian psychology, however, the result of the discussions was not deemed satisfactory to grant it authority and acceptance in the medical field particularly in Soviet psychiatry.

It has been found that smoking is associated with extraversion. The present paper extends this finding by demonstrating that the association holds internationally: in nations where the level of extraversion is high, the consumption of tobacco is also high. It is not certain whether smoking should be regarded as a comparatively superficial manifestation of the extraverted personality, or whether there is some unknown constitutional factor responsible for extra- version, the tendency to smoke, and the predisposition to cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the present paper, we have attempted to clarify the role of social structural variables in shaping friendships. Our interest in the friendship relationship has stemmed from the conviction that it constitutes a role relationship in which healthier behavior may be observed. In addition we feel that the study of such a relationship might lead to better understanding of the manner in which personality and social structural variables interact. Social structure has been broadly conceived as the framework which defines and delineates the range of friendships available to an individual. The variable of social status and role are viewed as being particularly important in structuring communication and interaction patterns of participants within a social setting, and in predisposing certain relationships more than others to move beyond the formally prescribed level of interaction. The fact that role prescriptions within a given social structure may force certain participants to become involved in interlocking interactions is viewed as having a two-fold significance. On one hand, it allows each participant to explore the desirability of becoming involved in a less formally prescribed interaction with his co-participant. On the other hand, if one or both participants do not wish to become involved in a less formal personality-centered type of interaction, the fact that the relationship has been formed and continues to be based upon social structure allows for the maintenance of a less affectively personally involved relationship without its disintegration. We have suggested that as the nature of the friendship relationship is explored more fully, it becomes clear that it must be viewed as a special type of role relationship--an integrative one in the sense that the multiple roles of each participant are brought together, shared and organized. In this connection, we hypothesize that the more central are the roles that each partner can share with the other in their friendship relationship, the greater the amount of closeness possible and the more satisfaction they experience in their mutual friendship interaction. `Within the present paper, we have spoken as if there were no individual differences in response to social structure. The fact that this isn't the case presents numerous opportunities for further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that an effective method of test analysis remains in the correlation of group paper and pencil results of two different instruments which purport to evaluate similar personality traits through different subject matter. This procedure emulates a principle very commonly employed in educational appraisement in which instance several tests are used to provide an inventory of achievement in the same subject. A similar comparison offers an additional approach to effective personality and test analysis. While the elements of the human personality are not as readily accessible as are academic attainments, they nevertheless can be identified sufficiently to contribute basic data for counselling, guidance, placement, follow-up, and other sundry school activities. One has but to mention such common traits as dominance, social adjustment, introversion, school adjustment and the like to realize that personality adjustment occupies a conspicuous place in the school and in the home environment of the student, of the parent, and of the teacher. Since the above and similar traits pattern the personality of the student, the correlation of one test schedule with another should contribute an understanding of the relative merits of various instruments along with their degree of effective personality measurement

The article presents a study that aimed to ascertain statistically significant correlated of the trait of "conservatism-radicalism" from a list of pencil and paper items. The 409 subjects used for this study were practically all volunteers. Each of the 409 subjects in this study was given a score on these conservatism-radicalism items. The 100 making the highest scores and 100 making the lowest scores on this test were selected for this contrast study. The initial take-off for this study was a test for "conservatism-radicalism" developed by the Character Research Institute of St. Louis. This test was included in the Youth Expressionaire. The percentage reaction of each group to each of 2,600 items of the total test was ascertained and notations made where differences between the two groups were statistically important. From the study, it seemed that "conservatives" differ from "radicals" on a very large number of specific symptoms from a wide number of fields.

This paper seeks to assess the utility of the transactional model of individual stress. According to the logic of the model, whether persons manifest stress is a multiplicative function of both situational and individual characteristics. The paper briefly discusses possible advantages of the perspective over other frames of reference. Then it describes a pilot study designed to determine whether hypotheses based on the transactional model could be supported empirically. Utilizing interview data from a small probability sample of all adults in the state of Missouri, scales were constructed by an improved method of item analysis for use as indicators of variations in stress and the situational and individual factors. Comparing stress scores by situational and individual variables produced results indicative of a multiplicative relationship and thus supportive of theories derived from the transactional perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an exploration of the relationship between members' role performance and the benefits they receive from their organizations. The general relationship is interpreted in the context of a "social exchange model" for voluntary associations. Data for the analysis pertain to members of four voluntary farm organizations: Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, National Farmers Organization, and Grange. The data were obtained in a state-wide survey of Wisconsin farm operators in 1965. In general, the data show a moderate relationship, in a positive direction, between benefits and role performance. The benefits tend to differ in the magnitude and, in some instances, in the direction of their relationships to such performance. The findings indicate the importance of taking into account magnitude and direction of relationship, as well as interaction among the benefits and among costs, in order to devise a viable social exchange model of cost benefit relations for voluntary associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the name suggests, social-psychology is a bastard field. It consists of such a variety of peoples doing so many different things in different ways, that it defies definition—at least for me. In spite of the neat delineations which are made in textbooks and the scholarly historical treatments which appear in encyclopediae and symposia, I find it difficult to grasp a concept of "social-psychology" which is anything more than the operational definition: "Social psychology is what people who call themselves social-psychologists, do." That is not much help, but it is all we have got. I mention my own confusion in this matter, not with the aim of confusing others, but by way of explanation: some of the issues I will touch upon in this paper may infringe upon what readers consider to be other areas of sociology. I regret such territorial invasions. But in my own quest for understanding why people act as they do, I have increasingly found that the traditional "fields" in the discipline and the traditional courses in the catalogue do not provide appropriate categories with which I can explain to colleagues and students what it is I am discovering. Having said all of this, let us get down to business. It is a decade since Dennis Wrong published the paper in which he challenged "The oversocialized conception of man in modern society" (1961). Reacting to a determinism which pervaded the social sciences and which seemed to be seeping into popular currency, Wrong asked if man were in fact as constrained by a monolithic culture as we social scientists would have it. A few years later Harold Garfinkel referred more bluntly to the models of men constructed by the various social sciences: he called them "judgmental dopes." The cultural dope and the psychological dope are, respectively, the man in the sociologist's society and the man in the psychologist's society (1967:67-68). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to outline and examine a few basic functions which ideology performs for the individual and for society. In order to progress in this direction, it might help to agree on some basic conceptual definitions. To begin with, some effort must be made to arrive at a satisfactory definition of ideology, since that term occupies a rather central place in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students of self conceptions have examined a variety of research problems using responses to the question "Who Am I?" Only in the initial report of Kuhn and McPartland is attention given to the relationships among the responses made to this question. They present data showing an ordering of responses which they believe to be "… a reflection of the make-up of the self conception." The present paper reports research stemming from a re-examination of the posited order among responses to the question "Who Am I?" Through content analysis, Kuhn and McPartland classified responses to this question into two categories: "consensual" and "subconsensual." Responses classified as "consensual" were those "… statements which refer to groups and classes whose limits and conditions of membership are matters of common knowledge." Responses classified as "subconsensual" were those statements "… which refer to groups, classes, attributes, traits, or any other matters which would require interpretation by the respondent to be precise or to place him relative to other people." Kuhn and McPartland stated that "… respondents tended to exhaust all of the consensual references they would make before they made (if at all) any subconsensual ones; that is, having once begun to make subconsensual references they tended to make no more consensual references (if indeed they had made any at all)." Further, this ordering of consensual and subconsensual responses is reported to take the form of an ordinal scale when submitted to Guttman's scalogram analysis technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Symbolic interaction theory as derived mainly from the work of George Herbert Mead views the self-concept as a structure of attitudes which arises in social experience and organizes the individual's perception of his social milieu. Recently, tests based upon this symbolic interaction orientation have been developed for the elicitation of self attitudes. One such test frequently used is the Twenty Statements Test (TST) constructed by Manford Kuhn and Thomas McPartland. The TST attempts to ascertain the specific statements respondents use to identify themselves to themselves. The applicability of the TST to problems of self theory is indicated by the rather wide use which has been made of the instrument. Investigations using the TST have focused upon the following: self-concept and social position; a self-concept and behavior; and the self-concept and attitudes toward other social objects. While TST results have been of substantive interest, little attention has been given to the methodological issues involved in the instrument and its use. For example, little is known concerning the validity and reliability of the test and its scoring procedures. If substantive assertions based upon TST results are to be considered as sound, judicious concern should be directed toward basic methodological issues. It is the purpose of this paper to consider empirically one methodological aspect of the TST. The focus is upon the test format itself. The question is posed: Do variations in the TST format produce variations in individuals' response patterns? Specifically, does the length of the test influence the number and the nature of statements made by respondents? This paper is directed toward answering this question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this paper are to propose a new concept for use in attitude studies; to explain one way in which this concept has been operationalized; to suggest an hypothesis for use in further studies of this concept; and to present some preliminary research findings concerning this hypothesis. Social scientists have long been interested in differences and similarities between people holding "liberal" and "conservative" attitudes toward various issues and problems of the day. Countless numbers of research studies have been conducted in this area. Perhaps most interesting among these studies have been several attempts to determine whether people tend to have a general liberal-conservative orientation, or whether we must expect their attitudes to vary in different situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a formal model for exchange within a system of action. The system of action is defined by actors, events, control of actors over events, and interests of actors in the outcomes of events. The system is designed to deal with divisible events (best exemplified by private goods) or indivisible events (such as a bill on which a vote is taken), and events with or without externalities, This paper considers mostly divisible events, but some steps are taken toward analysis of indivisible events on which there are opposing interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses situations depicting passion and controversy in science. Passion in science could be classified as intellectual or heuristic passion and persuasive passion. Intellectual passion is manifested when a scientist achieved a discovery. Likewise, persuasive passion is present when a scientist seeks to convince the people to believe and accept new ideas generated from his studies. On the other hand, science and controversy are interrelated. Controversy may arise when an idea from a particular scientist is being contended by another.

The article presents information about the movement of human organs. The movement of human organs helps the man to perform variety of tasks. It helps a man to do any kind of action including physical and mental work. The study of man and human movements embraces multi disciplinary approaches. It involves the study of psychology, physiology, anatomy, sociology, anthropology, history, philosophy, and physical education. The human movement study also embraces subdisciplines of sociology of sport, philosophy of sport, history of dance, physiology of exercise and psychology of sport. The article author says that it is question of debate that the study of human movement should be done on the basis of existing disciplines or there should be inclusion of new disciplines. The article author emphasizes on an alternative approach to study of human movement for its unification and universal applicability. The article author describes that there are several difficulties in analyzing the theory on human movements on the basis of language system because it is based on similar concepts of arts and music which can be better demonstrated rather than the describing them.

The article examines the five most common reasons for success-phobia which have been observed in sports. These are: the fear of social and emotional isolation; guilt with regards to self-assertion or aggression; unconscious fear of showing one's potential; the fear of old traditions; and the tendency to shoulder the burden of success. Each of these fears may operate independently or may occur in combination with one or more of the others. Each of these fears are due to a person's social conditioning.

The article presents critical analysis of the work of Monte M. Page from the Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, U.S. on the role of demand awareness in the communicator credibility. There are some errors in the statistical treatment of his data which are serious enough to cast considerable doubt upon the validity of the conclusions he draws from his analysis. A criticism of Page's paper refers to a problem that is encountered in numerous journals and is concerned with the relationship between alpha levels and the power of the test. In the first place a test statistic is simply either statistically significant or not significant native to a pre-established alpha level. If, for example, alpha is set as .05 the computed value of a test statistic that has an associated probability of .0001 is no more highly significant than is a test statistic which has an associated probability of .04. Both have simply been found to be statistically significant as compared with an arbitrary criterion. If, on the other hand, it is to be understood that the use of the term highly significant when attached to the associated probability of a test statistic that the author considers this associated probability to be identical to the alpha level, another problem arises due to the inverse relationship between Type I and Type II errors when sample size and effect size are held constant.

This paper reports an investigation of the relationship between cognitive complexity and the manner in which Ss, from conflicting information, form impressions of a person. It was found that Ss with a high degree of complexity integrate conflicting information into a unified impression, while Ss low in complexity form univalent or unintegrated impressions. These individual differences in impression formation are explained by a consideration of complexity within the framework of dissonance theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In summary, this paper has examined the interrelationship of subtests from four well-known personality inventories that stress subtests with independent content. Two main clusters were found and several minor ones, suggesting construct validity for possibly eight content areas. Problems of subtest meaning, of reliability, and of second order factors were discussed, as well as specific shortcomings of the tests, such as the omission of an emotional stability subtest in the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Other limitations may be seen through comparison as well, such as the fact that if one does not examine male and female data in parallel, it is likely that some subtleties associated with the gross differences in the sexes and are reflected in the personality structure will be missed. Indeed, one of the ways of establishing the power of a set of subtests is to indicate that they maintain their structure across such grossly different categories as male and female. While the limitations of the tests should be recognized, however, it needs to be stressed in closing that the status of these tests, while improvable, is far from primitive and reflects a tremendous accumulation of experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this brief paper has been to describe a Spanish adjectival check list adjustment index which might be employed on a cross-sectional basis. The check list clearly discriminated between the neurotic experimental subjects and the healthier controls for all four scoring indices employed: the indices of self-criticality, proportional differences, self-acceptance, and the ideal self-actual self discrepancy index. From our theoretical position, the IICL method appears to meet the criterion of relevance. In addition, the adjectival checking method possesses rational or logical validity. If linguistic pre-tests are made to compensate for colloquial usage and to adjust for the local psychological implications of the terms as employed in other societies, we would propose that the adjectival check list may be validly applied as an adjustment index to other Latin American societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on attempts to measure some of the effects of the audience on the content of communication. An experimental room was divided into three parts. In the first section subjects were briefed. In the second section stood a table covered with a black cloth. On the table rested 45 selected stimuli. In the third section sat the experimenter who served as the audience. In front of this experimenter rested a table, on which stood a wire recorder. The objects used as stimuli in this experiment were of natural size; one-third of the items were male-linked, one-third female-linked, and one-third non-sexed linked. The subjects were 90 undergraduate college students, their ages range from 18 to 30. Forty-five were women and the same number men. A frequency distribution was made for each experimental classification on the basis of the total number of items recalled by each subject within the classification. Comparisons were made among the mean frequencies by application of the t-test.

The article focuses on the effects of different degrees of knowledge of an audience on the content of communication. The experiment reported in this paper grows out of those reviewed above with one exception. The author has attempted to study perception as one step in the general process of communication and not as an isolated problem. The experiment concluded that the content of a communication is affected by the degree of knowledge which the communicator has of his audience. However, these effects seem to be minimal. It was found that the change of one word in briefing a subject does not seem to usually alter the content of his communication significantly. The major variables affecting the content of a communication are: (a) the nature of the communicator (b) the nature of the objects to be communicated (c) the nature of the audience (d) the degree of briefing about the audience. The method used in this experiment offers a way to measure these variables and to predict the relationships among them for a specific situation.

The morale inventory in this paper is composed of 11 miniature scales designed to measure attitudes related to various phases of morale. The scales are internally relatively homogeneous, and in spite of their brevity provide satisfactory retest reliabilities. The scales include items relating to personal morale of the emotional sort; confidence in the favorable outcome of the war; distrust of news sources; willingness to have civil liberties and social reforms suspended during the war; support of the war; and aggression toward the enemy, foreign-born in this country, our allies, our government and laws, and people in general. Intercorrelations of the scales indicate that morale is by no means a unitary variable. The correlations are generally low, although some interesting relationships come to light. Studies of a sample of the adult population of Minneapolis have shown that attitudes which would be considered solely on rational grounds to be favorable to the furtherance of the War effort do not always tend to go together. It has been found, for example, that favorable attitudes toward our allies and our government and laws are negatively correlated with expressions of aggression toward the enemy and toward aliens in this country. Aggressive attitudes, whether favorable or unfavorable to the war effort tend to be associated. Personal morale and optimism as to the course of the war appear to be relatively independent of other attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is the third of a series of systematic studies of sex differences in a university population which the writer has completed over the past five years. The first two studies were concerned with a search for differences in the fields of perception, intellect, and motor-coordination. The present study has attempted to get at the feeling and emotional aspect of the two sex-groups. Unfortunately, as was the case in the two previous studies, we have had to limit our study to a university population. The subjects, whom we shall designate hereafter as S's, were university sophomores who were taking their beginning course in psychology. All S's live in the large industrial city of Detroit or its environs. They live at home, and commute to and from the university. In terms of economic status, our subjects come from homes whose economic status is probably lower than is the case of the homes of students who attend private or state colleges and universities.

The article presents a questionnaire study of the traits that adults consider to be important in the formation of friendship with members of their own sex. The numerous friendships that the average adult forms in a society present a wide variety of characteristics. It is frequently observed that two persons who consider themselves as friends differ markedly from each other both physically and psychologically. If an analysis is made of the friends of the average adult, at least two major types are almost certain to be found. One type is those friendships, which are socially and economically expedient, if not obligatory, as the result of one's position in his business or profession, or in the organization or club to which he belongs. The second type includes those friendships, which are formed on the basis of a relatively free choice on the part of the members of the friendship pair. The intention of this paper is to determine what physical and psychological characteristics are considered desirable and undesirable from the standpoint of the formation of friendship between two adults of the same sex.

The article reports that the Thurstone Personality Schedule, first described in 1929, is too well known to require extensive description at this time. Because of its comprehensiveness and practical value in the identification of neurotic personalities, it has stimulated extensive research into its nature and characteristics. These studies have demonstrated the fact that the questions composing the Schedule are of unequal value in the identification of the neurotic personalities. Indeed, in their original paper the Thurstones showed that the respective questions varied widely in ability to differentiate between the poorest and best adjusted subjects, and published a list of 42 statements which they found most differentiating. In a thorough and painstaking study, R. R. Willoughby treated rather incisively the closely related problems of the relative homogeneity or heterogeneity of the items composing the schedule and the degree to which fairly homogeneous phases or affects of the neurotic personality are over or under-represented in the schedule.

The article focuses on an experimental study of some factors influencing the social attitudes of college students. The experiment was undertaken with the purpose of determining to what extent a semester's training in certain courses at the University of North Dakota has made measurable changes in the avowed attitudes of the students. For this purpose, the attitude toward the treatment of criminals was the one selected for study. Results indicate that the regular college courses are bringing about measurable changes in the student's avowed attitudes on social questions. As would be expected, the change is greater in those courses more closely related to the variable under investigation. In scoring the papers the author noticed that many students checked statements which seemed to be quite contradictory in their imports and which differed widely in their scale values. Individual differences in this respect were rather great. This raised the question as to whether or not any concomitants of this consistency or lack of it could be found.

Copyright of Journal of Social Psychology is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Journal of Social Psychology is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Theories of symbolic interaction and ethnomethodology, assume that everyone undertakes a complex process of construction of reality, including self-identity, in interaction with significant others. Utilizing insights into variations in identity reformulation in marriage obtained from a study of American metropolitan women, this paper concentrates on variations of identity reformulation among widows. The major hypothesis guiding the discussion is that the higher the education of the woman, as measured by formal schooling, the more she is likely to experience and undertake identity reformulation in marriage and in widowhood. The less education a woman has, the less she will be consciously affected in her identity formulation by these events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper, then, is to bring organizational analysis to bear upon the problem of competition for control over goals, means, and organizationally relevant behavior. Further, emphasis is placed upon one type of strategy by which such competition has been managed, i.e., formal coaptation (See Selznick, 1949) and, additionally, some consequences of that strategy. The unit for analysis is the Christian Family Movement (CFM), a Midwest based, lay apostolic, action organization whose leaders claim the allegiance of some 60,000 married couples in fifty-five countries. For some time now CFM has been experiencing the pains of organizational transition, and its history reflects the consequences of two groups in competition for control over the organization's goals and means. One consequence is somewhat of a two-dimensional authority structure, each dimension of which is felt to be the only legitimate one from the standpoint of its representatives. Other consequences have to do with policy-development and the achievement of formally stated goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we attempt to do the following with respect to the symbolic interactionist approach to social psychological phenomena: (1) to add to its relatively meager empirical base; (2) to develop a neglected aspect of the position, namely, the time dimension; and (3) to contribute to both the replication and the extension of the limited systematic research which has used this particular framework to focus on the key concept of self. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most promising efforts to operationalize the concept of the "self" has been that of the late Professor Manford H. Kuhn and his students. This approach has employed the "Twenty-Statements Test," or TST, an open-ended instrument which is designed to elicit the respondent's "spontaneous" self-definitions in their order of salience. Since its first publication in 1954, the TST has been used in a variety of studies? However, previous studies of the "self" have been conducted on restricted population samples, and little is known about the self-definitions held by a general population. The present paper describes the TST responses of a representative sample of the general adult population of Iowa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of questions have been recently raised or re-raised with respect to the status and intended function in sociology of the methodological device known as the "type." Martindale's summary of the historical and contemporary uses to which the typology has been put as well as his formulation of the issues connected with such use permits the economy of moving directly into a specification of the problems considered in this paper, and the proposed solutions. The present effort is directed primarily at providing one solution to the often raised problem of "the relation between the idealization involved in the type and the empirical reality," although less pressing issues are also treated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general theory of symbolic interaction, specifically self theory, is focused upon the importance of language as an instrument of definition and communication. People are seen as responding not directly to a resistant outer reality but to meanings of objects which are defined within a cultural system and social organization. G. H. Mead, in his discussion of the way persons develop self concepts and the accompanying ability to take roles effectively, speaks of the degree to which persons develop a "general other." This general other is an organized structure of attitudes believed to be common to all and is defined in terms of a universe of discourse growing out of the symbolic interaction of a community of individuals. Replies to the Twenty Statements Test, described by Kuhn and McPartland, display this quality. Self-identifying statements which people make fall along a rough spectrum of reference which can be broken up in various ways. The distinction which Kuhn and McPartland have reported is between what they call consensual and nonconsensual statements. Consensual statements are defined as those statements which would be generally understood by persons in the larger society without explanation. Nonconsensual statements are defined as those requiring interpretation before their social relevance can be assessed. The consensual statement is language behavior directed to the general other, while the nonconsensual statement is language directed to a more limited audience. H. S. Sullivan's contribution in developing the notion of the "significant other" consists in accounting for the fact that persons often do not seem to internalize standards and norms from the whole society but from segments of it on some selective basis. In this paper, the number of consensual statements made in response to the Twenty Statements Test will be called the locus score. Respondents are assigned to "high" and "low" locus categories as they make more or less than the median number of consensual statements. Expanding upon this frame of reference, it seems reasonable to propose that the locus quality found in self-conceptions of a given person is also characteristic of his conceptions of other objects. This hypothesis is based on the assumption that the self is the core of a set of interrelated attitudes, and that the level of reference employed by the respondent in his attitudes toward the self would therefore be applicable to other attitudes as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on several books. Some of the books are "Problems of Historical Psychology," by Zevedie Barbu and "Developments in Mathematical Psychology. The book consists of studies of three mathematical formulations that have proved of interest to psychologists during the past fifteen jean: Information theory, in which an attempt is made to characterize certain summary properties of time invariant choices; Mathematical learning theories, in which the goal is to describe the systematic changes of choices that result from environmental responses to them; Quasi-linear theories of tracking, in which a person who is trying to follow closely a continuously moving target is treated as a slightly noisy linear system. The author delineate the problem areas being treated and Introduce the basic mathematical ideas used, cite some of the major mathematical results, and survey and criticize the more important papers in which the theories are confronted with experimental data. Another book is "Industrial Productivity and Motivation."

In this paper a general social-psychological model has been presented, which is believed to be useful in sociological theory. It was shown that some existing models can be expressed as special cases of this scheme. Also that some empirical data can be interpreted within its framework. It is hoped that if a considerable number of existing models are expressed within the same frame of reference some clues will be offered in the formulation of less abstract, more realistic models. The formulation of empirical evidence within the same frame of reference should provide additional valuable guidance in the search for reliable and realistic sociological theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a synthesis of the necessary and sufficient restrictions that insure a transitive group preference if majority rule is the aggregation procedure. We show the equivalence between transitivity and an extension of the condition of Condorcet which states that if an alternative receives a majority over every other, then it should be the social choice. This extension is equivalent to finding a solution to a system of linear inequalities. We use these inequalities to demonstrate that the recent work on restrictions of voter preferences can be derived from this Extended Condorcet Condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this, paper the authors use information theory to restate R.K. Merton's classification of deviant behavior in mathematical terms. Merton's classification scheme has been very widely used but does not appear to have been "mathematized" to any extent. In consequence the usefulness of the schema is somewhat diminished. For example, it is difficult to measure directly the amount of anomie prevalent in a situation, and it is difficult to decide Whether, one situation is. more anomic than another. The authors illustrate the usefulness of information theory as a descriptive tool by discussing a highly simplified situation; however, the measurement techniques to be developed are applicable to more complex and realistic situations. The authors restrict their attention to the set of all motorists with 9-5 weekday jobs who are at any intersection at 8:00 a.m. seven days a week, and one will consider the following to be an exhaustive list of the goals, norms, and actions of these motorists.

Presents a paper on the Navajo world view and culture patterns of speech. Discussion on the Navajo metaphysics; Differences between the world view of the Navajo and the Platonic-Aristotelian world view; Beliefs of the Navajo on the efficacy of the speech in the maintenance of harmony in the universe; Representation of knowledge as the result of the empirical, pragmatic reasoning by the Navajo; Suggestions of a power in talking and thinking in situations of enquiry and decision-making by the Navajo epistemological belief; Description of the Navajo psychology in terms of the rationality of man; Use of ritualistic prayer by the Navajo for restoring order in the universe; Application of public discussion by the Navajo as a means of restoring harmony; Impact of culture on the Navajo rhetoric.

The article presents information on a study in which using a modification of the Kuethe Felt Figure Technique (KFFT), to allow group administration, the present author made a comparison of the Mother and Father schemata of primary grade achievers and underachievers. Male and,female child figures, identical to the Kuethe felt figure children except in size, were reproduced on gum-backed paper. The figures were on two-inch paper squares, which are easily handled by children. Each child received an envelope containing figures of his own sex. The children were told to make believe that the little pictures in the envelope were pictures of themselves and that if they would lick the backs of the pictures lightly, they could put the pictures of themselves wherever they wanted. It was found that the reaction of the Ss to "Mother" and to "Father" involves schemata that are a function of both the sex of the Ss and their achievement patterns. Achieving male Ss place "self" closer to the Mother figure than do the underachieving male Ss; and achieving male Ss also place "self" closer to the Mother figure than to the Father figure.

The article discusses the author's perspective on the problems regarding the psychological characteristics on arms control and disarmament. He points that these psychological processes must be recognized and understood in the arms control context. He also presents three kinds of threats with regards to these psychological processes including the national annihilation in the face of nuclear war, threat to the image as being a man capable by rational means of overcoming, and threat of destruction of the self-image.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relation of generalized and specific expectancies to actual academic performance. Thirty-five female and 28 male fifth and sixth graders completed Nowicki-Strickland locus of control scales and Rotter Level of Aspiration Board procedures. Results indicated that those who perceived themselves to be internally controlled or those who used immediate experience on the Rotter board to form accurate expectancies of future performance on this board achieved more than their counterparts. These results were taken as supportive of conceptualizing achievement in expectancy terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparisons of factor analytic results based on a matrix of total (individual) correlations and three matrices of between-groups (ecological) correlations revealed fundamental differences in factor patterns when the unit of analysis shifted from individuals to aggregates. The major difference involved the marked tendency for a highly individualistic General Ability Factor derived from the matrix of total correlations to become more and more sociological in content as individuals were aggregated. Results are discussed in terms of their bearing on the problem of determining the "appropriateness" of a given unit of analysis, individuals vs. aggregates, for certain levels of inquiry, i.e., psychological vs. sociological. It is concluded that whether the researcher should heed the traditional warning about the use of aggregate data relationships as a basis for making inferences concerning individuals ought to depend in part on whether his interest is in psychological or sociological propositions about individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]