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Management theorists and practitioners have developed various rationales for the adoption of participative management. In recent years empirical evidence has pointed to the increasing importance of the lateral dimension in the managerial role. The growing emphasis on a manager's lateral interactions provides new justification for the use of participative management. This article examines the relationship between participation and lateral relations and establishes a new rationale for the adoption of participative management. Participative management has been described variously as "a subtle means of having employees think they are a more important part of the organization" or as "group decision-making." The exact dimensions of this concept are not of major importance for this paper; but, for purposes of clarity, participative management is defined as the participation of employees in the managerial role. This includes decision-making, planning, controlling, and any of the other management functions. A possible side benefit of a more judicious use of the participative style of management is the reduction of time spent interacting horizontally in the organization. The participative approach can also get the subordinate involved in some aspects of lateral relations.

Although the study of human communication processes in organizations has progressed considerably in the past two decades—with important developments in predictively fruitful concepts and useful methods—much of the work remains isolated and unintegrated. The purpose of this paper is to describe important concepts for analyzing communication processes in organizations, and to point out some of the methodological developments related to these concepts. At the conclusion of the paper we discuss some of the major research topics which should be major foci of organizational communication inquiry. These comments are given within the context of certain dimensions of organizational communication which should increase coherence in a diversified and uncoordinated body of knowledge. Our approach to the study of communication in organizations rests on two basic related tasks for the generation of knowledge in a relatively undeveloped area. First is the crucial task of explicating concepts that permit description and analysis of communication and/or information systems in organizations. While this task is underway, we also seek to establish correlational or causal relationships between communication concepts and other organizational variables. To clarify our intent in specifying these two tasks, we begin by providing a brief description of the terms "organization," "information," "communication," and "other organizational variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on mobility in temporary society. In the search for the temporary organization, capable of and eager to innovate and adapt, high rates of personnel mobility may work against organizational change. The article discusses a case analysis which is based upon a paper which the author initially prepared for a reunion of current and past faculty members of the Federal Executive Institute (FEI), held in Charlottesville, Virginia, in February 1973. The main theme of the paper on the relationship between personnel and leadership mobility on the one hand and innovation and adaptiveness on the other scented to me a significant challenge to some of the assumptions in the current and predictive literature about organizations, with implications far beyond that altogether unique institution known as the FEI. Several concepts current among public administrators and organizational theorists set the organizational mold for the FEI. Each of these concepts was selected to neutralize what was perceived as dysfunctional aspects of traditional bureaucratic organizations.

The purpose of this paper is to report the results of a field experiment designed to test the effects of manipulating several elements of an operative level performance appraisal system. First, the multipurposive nature of appraisal in formal organizations will be discussed. This is followed by a brief overview of the literature on performance appraisal. The design and results of the study at hand are then discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the formal communication system of science has become less able to supply information with the rapidity that scientists require, increasing attention has been paid to the structure of communication in science. Three types of studies have been conducted in this area. Firstly, studies of the scientific literature itself. Secondly, studies of the way scientists obtain the information which they need for their research and finally, studies of the relationships between scientists who conduct research in the same areas. For the most part, studies of formal communication and information gathering have been conducted in the absence of all but the most rudimentary theoretical models. The lack of theory can be attributed partly to the highly practical orientation of many studies and also to the fact that an adequate model cannot be based on any one of these types of studies alone. A useful theory must integrate knowledge from all three types. In this article, the author reviews these studies and will describe a theoretical model which has been designed to fill this purpose.

Five phases of sociologists' approaches to education in society are identified. A discussion of the analysis of internal problems of education systems is followed by a more detailed consideration of education and the values-consensus of social classes as it arises particularly in the work of French, Eastern European and Latin American sociologists. In conclusion, the sociological approach to education is set in historical perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article cites a study concerned with the reactions of industrial workers to certain organizational demands in an environment of increasing work pressure. The result found that the application of work pressure by the manager and feelings of work pressure by the employee are not as highly related as it was expected. These two variables emerge on separate though marginally correlated factors which suggests that there is variability in the way work pressure is applied that in turn produces variability in the employee's responses to it. There are undoubtedly many things that contribute to this variability in relationship between applied work pressure and felt work pressure. By examining the relationship of the decision-making power in the department within the context of total organizational power, researchers can explain part of the dynamics that occur on the manufacturing floor and, in fact, better understand the relationship between the supervisor and the employees. It can be said because there is evidence that the distribution of power radically affects the manager's behavior vis-a-vis the employee.

Many studies have been carried out of the occupational goals and satisfactions of special professional groups. Studies that look across the entire American work force, however, are rare. One such study was carried out by the Brookings Institution as part of a larger effort to determine how Americans viewed the federal service (Kilpatrick, et al., 1964). Personal interviews were conducted with a probability sample of all regularly-employed Americans. Many of the questions focused on work. The purpose of this paper is to indicate the general goals Americans expect to fulfill through work, the factors that influence satisfaction and dissatisfaction in their present jobs, how these matters vary by level of education, and finally what significance these findings have for understanding American society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past six years a considerable debate has taken place on the notion of orientation to work. The controversy, for indeed, such it appears to be, has spread over at least 2 journals and involved several eminent writers on the subject. Whilst the debate tends to be rather complex — especially as it develops — it would appear to be concerned with two apparently simple issues; namely, (1) are a worker's priorities “fixed” by forces external to the working situation; and (2) do these priorities remain constant over a period of time? An understanding of these issues is of vital importance to management for a number of reasons. For example, if it is true that external influences are of considerably greater importance in determining an individual's set of priorities, then little effort need be placed on trying to design organizational structures, technologies, and payment systems, or to modify managerial style in such a way as to allow greater opportunities for diverse priorities to be satisfied. Furthermore, if such priorities did remain relatively constant over time, selection would become very much easier and the need for any form of appraisal rendered virtually non‐existent. Incentives would always continue to stimulate effort, and training would be reduced to a minimum. Naturally, such “utopian myopic” speculation is exceedingly dangerous. Author Abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article, after considering the need for effective techniques for policy evaluation, develops a model for the evaluation of urban public policy. The model consists of five separate components and includes a time variable. The final section of the paper uses the component model and resulting variables to evaluate two hypothetical urban programs. The problems encountered in single- and multi-program evaluation attempts are discussed. Finally, conclusions are drawn concerning the limitations and utility of evaluation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Confrontation, accompanied by violence and vandalism, is interfering with the ability of administrators of public institutions to discharge their responsibilities with rationalism and efficiency. Universities, secondary schools, government, and social agencies, in varying forms and degrees, are challenged by the militancy of student, minority, and client activist groups. Some of their demands seem unreasonable and unrealizable, and the methods used appear to leave little room for negotiation or compromise. Under pressure from these militants, and from political and public demands for law and order, public administrators find it difficult to develop a professional, rational, and consistent pattern of response. This paper discusses some of the sociological and psychological effects of organizational conflicts, and suggests some operational principles to guide administrators of public institutions in meeting the confrontation tactics of activist groups.

Many learning theories exist, and should be employed by training and development managers for trainees undergoing a specific learning experience. There is no one best theory and no universally applicable theory that can be applied uncritically. The academic study of learning has concerned itself more with the learning of lower animals than with how man learns. Learning theories can be categorized broadly into two families, stimulus response theories and cognitive theories. Learning can be observed indirectly only before or after behavior under controlled conditions is revealed. Training exists to bring out learning on the part of the trainee. Learning may be a consequence and process that takes place within the trainee. The only way to ascertain if learning has occurred is by analyzing the behavioral difference in trainees. This can also be deduced from the fact that training is a process by which the training and development specialist expects to bring about a change in the trainee's response to a given environment or a set of circumstances.

Every organization is characterized by problems associated with internal communication and conflicts. These problems are seemingly most difficult, nebulous and frustrating for managers as well as non-managers. Managers are often faced with problems that may be designated as personality problems or problems associated with initiating a change within the organization. Problems are also associated with people who fail to adapt to the level of upper management or executives. These problems may sound disassociated with each other, but have one thing in common; all of these stem from miscommunication or inept communication within the organization. In a broad way, this attribute can be treated as an offshoot of organizational culture that is prevalent in the respective organization. And, virtually all communication problems and conflicts between people, no matter how serious they appear, are due to an accumulation of unconfronted and unresolved minor issues having no apparent importance.

Niccolo Machiavelli, Florentine statesman and writer, proposed that there were many means to an end, and that to seriously limit one's attainment of objectives simply because the means were immoral would be utter folly. A discussion of efficiency of means, rather than the morality of them, is found in the works of philosopher & educator John Dewey in his concept of instrumentalism. Like management by objectives (MBO), instrumentalism focused upon ends, means, and problem solving through the application of pragmatic and scientific methods. Both MBO and instrumentalism permit a loose distinction between science and common sense, and each is expressed in the everyday common language of communication between busy people. Each system is action-centered and leads to a teleology. The chief merit of the bureaucracy is that it should produce technical efficiency. The goal is stated, the labor is divided, the job of each person in the organizational hierarchy is described in detail, and the result will be high efficiency. Bureaucracy seemed to have certain limitations including the fact that it alienated its own clientele and killed personalized relationships.

The article focuses on the human resource center (HRC) concept, which has been applied in industry as an innovative attempt to identify and to minimize human problems in an organizational context. It has also been used as a vehicle to encourage manpower research in academia and to provide a clearinghouse for potential solutions to typical manpower problems. Important to the formulation of the HRC's objectives was the belief that the problems of absenteeism, tardiness, work performance and labor turnover are closely related to job satisfaction. Unfortunately, because the human resource centers are considered experimental, there is the possibility that their existence is cut short before any real contribution can be made toward solving manpower problems. The purpose of the HRC was to identify manpower problems, isolate the causes of the problems and solve the problems by whatever means necessary. Specifically, the HRC was to concentrate its efforts on improving the quality of work lives for entry level employees.

This article examines and evaluates prevailing ideas on line and staff and uses system theory to point the way toward a new approach to an old organizational problem. Staff men tend to have more education than their line colleagues, whereas line men have the edge in experience. Staff's primary loyalty is thought to reside with the area of specialization, whereas line's loyalty lies with the arm. System theory provides a broad philosophical perspective that bridges academic disciplines and mounts integrated attacks on a wide variety of problems. System theory primarily studies interactions and relationships rather than the properties of phenomena in isolation. In studying organizations, the system theorist views that organization as a collection of components or subsystems each of which consists of a set of people and objects that engage in patterned relationships which enable them to be distinguished from people and objects that belong to other subsystems. The system theorist examines line-staff interaction, attempting mainly to determine the impact of these interactions upon the larger organization. Because organizational goal attainment is so important, systematic analysis concentrates on those aspects of line and staff interaction which contribute most directly to this goal attainment.

The article focuses on a problem of slow decision-making, which every large and medium -sized company is facing. After examining why slow decision-making occurs, the author details a new decision-making process designed not only to speed up decision-making, but to give management for the first time, control over its corporate tempo. The behaviorists try periodically to do something about it but their efforts generally can be measured in terms of spasmodic shortlived successes. Management by objectives tries to solve the problem as it attempts to make decisions in form of objectives at the outset and then have all activities flow from those objectives. Most decision makers operate most comfortably in an atmosphere of unanimity. Where there is conflict, they often tend to defer the decision, hoping that somehow as time passes unanimity will be achieved either by persuasion or perhaps by an alteration of the circumstances upon which the decision was based. Or they delay simply because making a decision in the face of conflict or critical opposition is unpleasant.

Executive development is a rather general term which applies to many kinds of learning presumably aimed at increasing managerial competence. The learning may involve cognitive and intellectual skills which are easily modified through traditional classroom lecture and discussion techniques. In recent years, however, executives have become concerned about change and development at deeper levels of the personality and have begun to claim that the development of greater creativity. Other goals similar to creativity which are subsumed under human resource development programs include self-actualization, improved potential for adaptation and increased ability to test reality, all of which contribute to deep personal growth and the development of competence, as opposed to mere conformity with external standards and little internal change in the individual. A fundamental question the leader must ask is what conditions facilitate personal growth and improved adaptability among subordinates. Since leadership can be viewed as a special kind of interpersonal relationship, it is appropriate to start by looking at the nature of growth-promoting interpersonal relations.

Public employee strikes constitute one of the most heated topics of debate in the labor relations field, or indeed, in any area of public policy. While the legitimacy of unionization and collective bargaining by public employees has been gaining increased recognition, both the wisdom and propriety of strikes in the public sector are still very much open to question. "The Law" (statutes, court decisions, opinions of Attorneys General) seems quite clear and all-but-uniform on the basic point strikes by public employees are illegal. Yet such strikes do in fact occur, sometimes with union sanction. And leaden in otherwise-responsible, national professional organizations can make statements during organizing campaigns to the effect that they know strikes are illegal, so they would use a strike only as a last resort. Furthermore, even where the illegality of the strike seems crystal-clear under the applicable state statute, experience shows that local (elected) judges may be reluctant to issue injunctive relief at the insistence of the public-employer unit involved. The public-employer unit will probably find the courts not much willing to impose the draconian civil and criminal measures provided for in some statutes, and will itself probably be reluctant also, for similar political and practical reasons, to impose the ultimate sanction-dismissal.

The article discusses author's reflections on some experiments in reforming universities. Author says that when university students talk about their courses, they commonly describe them as rigid, abstract, and dull. They often speak of heavy time pressure, of a constant demand placed on them by staff to produce formal pieces of written work on topics of minor interest. They often say, their written work is a matter of reciting other peoples ideas, extracted from books and lectures. The combination drives some of the more consistent among them, into rampant anti-intellectualism. For they are right that most university teaching is rigid and its material dull. While there are some teachers who inspire enthusiasm, and a greater number who are at least workmanlike, much of the material that students are forced to learn is trivial, much is scholasticism, even if produced by modern scholastics. Further, the universities often fail to teach what students expect and hope to learn. There are many students who by the middle of their first year have become disillusioned, and some who feel positively betrayed.

This article discusses printed word, which is a key to the creation and diffusion of knowledge, to the maintenance of an active intellectual life and to the development of advanced technology. Further, books, periodicals and other reading materials are central to the educational system, to research and to the creation of an independent national culture. Regardless of what advances have taken place in the diffusion of information, scholars, policy makers and the intellectual community still depend, for the most part, on the printed word to communicate. Publishers control the process of book production and distribution, and are therefore, a usually ignored element in the intellectual equation. Publishers not only make ideas available to a broad public, but in many ways share in deciding which ideas will emerge into the arena of public discourse. All this has special significance in the developing areas, where the challenge of building a modern culture is great and where books are urgently needed for both education and for broader intellectual purposes.

This article aims to study factors that affect job behavior of employees. There are at least two questions that arise concerning employee perception based measures of climate. First, what are the dimensions of climate. Factor analytic studies have resulted in from four to seven factors which only loosely overlap. Four recurring "factors" have been suggested and these show rather wide within "factor" variations. The second question concerns whether the perceptions of aspects of climate are related to either objective or subjective indices of individual behavior in or attitudes concerning the organization. The purpose of the present study was to factor analyze 22 perceptually based organization climate scales from three climate questionnaires on which some validity data have been published, and to relate the dimensions found in the factor analysis to employees' subjective reports of satisfaction, involvement, intrinsic motivation, effort, and performance. Three of the job attitude variables were satisfaction ratings for three job aspect areas reported are: interpersonal relationships, task-involved self-realization, and recognizable signs of advancement.

This article investigates the validity of the hypothesis that management effectiveness is a function of the personality traits of a manager. The most significant large-scale psychological research programs to be concerned with the situational aspects of leadership were that conducted at Ohio State University over the decade covering 1946-1956. Probably the most far-reaching result of this research was the identification of the two orthogonal dimensions of leadership behavior known as "Consideration" and "Initiating Structure." Consideration reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates' ideas, consideration of their feelings and a certain warmth between supervisor and subordinates. A high score is indicative of a climate of good rapport and two-way communication. A low score indicates the supervisor is likely to be more impersonal in his relations with group members. Structure reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to define and structure his own role and those of his subordinates toward goal attainment.

Adopting new patterns of behavior has long been studied as "learning" when individual people were the innovation adopters, and the conditions promoting learning have been the object of much scientific work. This article discusses the importance of understanding adaptation or learning by organizations, describes the state of our knowledge as of the late 1960's, and reports both the failure of current models of adaptive change by organizations and some promising findings about a new model. The direction of future work in the adaptive aspects of organizational behavior is considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on federal civil service in the U.S. The federal civil service is now experiencing its first major retrenchment in forty years. The active buildup of the Vietnam and Great Society years has been replaced by job freezes and Reductions-in Force. The 1970s have ushered in a change in federal priorities. Whereas the Johnsonian Great Society emphasized social change, equity, responsiveness, and representativeness, President Richard Nixon's New Federalism appears to foreshadow a reduced federal social programming role and an administrative model stressing economy, efficiency, productivity, and executive control. Yet just as the Administration is taking stock of the federal social program inventory and administrative apparatus, so it is important for those committed to a different conception of the rate of federal intervention in promoting social change to look back and assess the federal experience during the last decade in an attempt to help define new and more viable strategies for change.

The article comments on failure of the U.S. Department of Labor's Work Incentive (WIN) program. In one important respect, the Work Incentive (WIN) program is typical of other manpower training efforts and of many government service programs: it is a failure. It was "begun in 1968 as a major effort to restore relief recipients to economic independence and thereby cut the cost of burgeoning welfare rolls. Many factors have contributed to the program's failure; two of the most important are largely beyond the control of program administrators. Clients are often poorly motivated toward employment, and jobs which welfare recipients are qualified to fill are often unavoidable. These two factors, of course interact, for a lack of jobs of the availability of only "dead end" jobs obviously affects client morale and motivation. The problem is endemic to WIN and to many other public programs; it is bureaucratic entanglement and inertia. Regulations are many, performance incentives are few. The WIN teams at the local levels are inundated with regulations from federal, regional, and state offices.

The article focuses on the methodology and terms behind successful long term planning in Great Britain. The article suggests three areas on which this planning is based: analysis and forecasting for long-term decision making, analysis of individual steps necessary in developing plans, and research into the particular practices and experience of individual companies. The article comments on long term planning as it relates to operational planning, project planning, and strategic planning. It mentions the background of executives responsible for long ranged planning, and suggests that the majority of long ranged planning arises from an organization's finance group, and that the role of the long range planner is often combined with that of chief accountant or finance director.

Organization structure is determined by the interaction of several variables. Woodward's work suggested that technology is one of the most important and this study attempts to extend her findings from the industrial to the non-manufacturing sphere. The results show that structure does relate to task within the non-manufacturing group - but that taken as a whole the structures of the non-manufacturing group differ from all those Woodward found in manufacture. Some of these differences are seen to derive from the relative simplicity of the non-manufacturing technology. Others can be traced to the operation of intervening variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the integration of accounting and management control within management control systems. The need for a planning and control system within a business organization stems from general characteristics of the nature of business enterprises. The author notes that the purpose of a unified management control system is to ensure that actions are in accordance with the firm's objectives. Planning and controlling are inseparable parts of an overall effective management control system. From a functional viewpoint, they can be viewed as an attempt to enforce the integration of separate functional areas of the firm such as marketing, product development, or accounting into one network for the purpose of improving upon decision-making.

Two hundred and ninety female shop floor workers and sixty-five female shop floor ex-workers of a large electrical/electronic engineering company were given a multiple choice questionnaire and unstructured interview. Thirty per cent of the total sample expressed general dissatisfaction with their job. An analysis of their responses indicated the over-riding importance of the work itself as a determinant of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. An analysis of reasons for leaving the company indicated that 'voluntary' labour turnover resulted mainly from dissatisfaction with the work. No evidence was gained to support Herzberg's principle of duality, although the practical implications from the study are very similar to those evident in the motivation/hygiene theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the introduction of sound appraisal schemes for managers to enhance their decision making capabilities. Many companies recognize the inevitability of appraisals within the process of making decisions on personnel. Larger companies with progressive personnel departments have prepared to carry out research to uncover the strengths and weaknesses of their appraisal schemes. The author notes the basic components of most appraisal schemes to be a structured appraisal form and an appraisal interview. The management by objective approach becomes pragmatized when concerning an employee's current job performance.

The article presents information on goal formation process in complex organizations, suggesting several foundations upon which a unified theory can be based. The author notes that no universally-accepted theories have evolved to explain the process of goal formation despite a recognized lack by economics and administration students. The author suggests that objectives are a function of a firm's external environment, its internal social system, the motives of individual participants who possess organizational power and their negotiation process. A complex organization rarely possess unlimited goal-setting discretion, as its choices are increasingly influenced by external forces.

The article presents information on organization development. The term "organization development" is defined as a normative, re-educational strategy intended to affect systems of beliefs, values, or attitudes within the organization so that it can better adapt to the accelerated rate of change in technology and industrial environment. The term also applies to formal organizational restructuring initiated by behavioral changes. Earlier strategies include the empirical-rational model, which is based on the assumption that men are guided by reason, and the power-coercion strategy, which relies on compliance through the exercise of authority. The author views the organization following scholar W.G. Bennis's formulation as an adaptive, problem-solving, organic structure.

The article focuses on the use of T-Group or human relations training and its impact on managerial behavior. Sensitivity training provides an opportunity for managers to learn more about their behavior and the effect of their actions on others, as well as how to function effectively in face-to-face communication. The emphasis is on their feelings during communication instead of on the transmission of information. A study found that a T-group's values shifted toward recognition of executives' emotions, better management of their feelings, and development of accountability in subordinates, which contributes to the effectiveness of employees, work groups, and the overall organization.

The article refers to research on time management, which used a specially designed diary for managers to record how they spent their time over a four-week period, and reports on a one-week follow-up study where managers think about the way they work. The training exercise for critical thinking was based on diary-keeping and a questionnaire about work organization and the lessons learned in the time-management study. A sample of comments from the middle and senior managers who participated in the study is given, as well as brief data for the type of work changes being planned as a result of the study.

The article refers to "authority" in organizations with an analogy using "authority-independence," "monopoly-perfect competition," and "countervailing power," and discusses setting organizational objectives. Douglas McGregor suggested that managers accept organizational goals when they participate in the development of objectives that conform to their own goals. The technical problems in establishing management control systems include two conflicting aims--setting a guide to action in terms of budget and standards for evaluating managers. Three factors in managerial discretion and the firm models of Theory X--where the manager maintains slack in performance to cover personal objectives--and Theory Y--where the firm's target goals are higher than those set for managers--are mentioned.

The article focuses on information flow in organizations and data processing. Technical aspects of information or communications theory include coding and decoding, noise and error, channel capacity and other performance measures, format and display or how the message is presented to receivers, and who should receive information. An analogy comparing information and physical products is mentioned, as well as information economics, which is the amount of resources that are allocated for producing and disseminating information. The activities in a data processing facility include: data storage; data handling; and transmission of a message. Type of activities that generate data include: internal and external sources; and historical and current events.

The article refers to "The Effective Executive," by Peter Drucker and focuses on how senior executives manage their work and time. In theory, executives make major decisions in the systems that they are responsible for, maintain communications and formulate organizational policy, and create corporate climate that promotes positive motivation toward company success. Three reasons are given for why they do not spend enough time on operating, innovating, and stabilizing activities, including motivation or choice. The study suggests that long-range planning should be established as a routine and management by objectives implemented to coordinate sub-systems in a business. An analogy compares the process of creating value in an industrial enterprise with yeast in a cask of beer.

The article reports on a study of intergroup conflict and role strain. Operational Researchers, who are characterized as marginal executives in the organization, were interviewed about role ambiguity and their positions as innovating specialists. The study revealed patterns similar to other research on white collar workers and job satisfaction. Because organizations are systems consisting of employees with interdependent roles, researchers suggest that staff specialists should act as advisers to line management and have no executive power over them. Statistics include sources of dissatisfaction and difficult aspects of the innovating role. Classical organization theory is mentioned, as well as person-role conflict, role senders, and role set.

THIS article is about the relationship between management training and the functioning of the enterprise and not the internal order of the training school. My thesis is that the impact of management training would be greater than it is if the link between the training programme and the firm's functioning were strengthened by the continuous analysis and evaluation of both. This argument implies that the role of the training officer needs redefining. The question of who should be responsible for evaluation is less important however than that it should be undertaken. I begin by clarifying the purpose of management training and organization evaluation, as I see them, and then consider some reasons for the opposition to evaluation before under- lining the need to integrate training with the enterprise. I conclude with brief comments on the techniques and procedures of evaluation and some unintended consequences of training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central concern of this article is to explore the possible consequences of crisis-induced stress on those aspects of individual and organizational performance that are most likely to affect processes and outcomes of foreign policy-making. Under the best of circumstances foreign policy issues tend to be marked by complexity, ambiguity and the absence of stability, they usually demand responses which are judged by qualitative rather than quantitative criteria. Most research findings indicate a curvilinear relationship between stress and the performance of individuals and groups. At moderate levels, anxiety can be facilitating, but at higher levels it disrupts decision processes. On the other hand, increasing levels of stress tend to heighten the salience of time and to distort judgments about it. High-stress situations tend to increase selective perception and to impair the ability to discriminate between sense and nonsense, the relevant and the irrelevant. Aside from these effects of stress, there are policy-making under circumstances of crisis-induced stress is likely to differ in a number of respects from decision-making processes in other situations.

This article focuses on the mass public, thus broadly defined, in socio-cultural milieu of singular complexity in incoherence, that the primary beaten zone of the messages put out haphazardly by the mass communication techniques. It is among that public that the mass media will acquire an audience as best they may and get a hearing, drawing in thousands, millions, of individuals of all classes, races, creeds, and ages and of either sex. Among this mass public diversified the information media that will seek their own mass public, whose fundamental characteristic is likewise the isolation of every member in consequence of the disruption of the primary links and of the profound and irremediable heterogeneity of the component groups and individuals. However, the audience thus built up by the mass media acquires distinctive characteristics which differentiate it from heterogeneous groups, which, without the techniques of mass communication, would remain isolated and hermetically sealed off from one another. As a result of the persistent action of the major information media, a progressive crystallization of a sociological monstrosity is necessarily taking place by a fortuitous but effective cohesion and structure of the heterogeneous multitudes. It gives unmistakable evidence of its existence in moments of tension and crisis, like panics, but it is also discernible daily in common- place conversations and exchanges of ideas or views where the messages of the information techniques figure constantly and decisively.

The article focuses on transformation and adaptation processes in modern societies. A number of schools of thought in the domain of social analysis have attached considerable importance to the subject of resistance to change. There is a danger that the explanation of phenomena provoked by social transformations when set out in terms of a dichotomy, may lead to a tautological interpretation of the interplay of opposing forces, whereas a more desirable procedure would be to analyze the strength and direction of such forces. Such an explanation may well lead to psychological simplification, individuals being described as constitutionally disposed, or opposed, to change. Where stress is laid on resistance to change, this is in large measure due to a failure to take account of the external pressure exerted, in many cases, by technical, economic and social transformations. In any case, the transformation is, within the group concerned, imposed on or suggested to one party by another. For some people, therefore, change is always something imposed from outside, and for everyone it contains at least a few exogenous elements, the most important being those models on which it is based. Finally, those who analyze transformation processes in modern societies are attaching increasing importance to intentional change, a process to some extent planned and authoritarian, which introduces at least a more powerful means of influencing social groups. Such change, which would appear to correspond to the wishes of the society itself; owes as much in origin and form to external elements as do the individual actions whereby the mobility of a society is demonstrated.

Three categories of tension are identified as potential correspondents of psychological forces: tension arising from own needs, from induced needs, from the need to satisfy impersonal demands. To these, a fourth is added in which tensions are coordinated to someone else's desire to locomote toward or away from a region in his life space. From this Lewinian perspective, altruism and other less dramatic forms of prosocial behavior are part of a general theoretical question: What conditions determine whether individuals develop tension systems coordinated to another's goal attainment? The process by which tension is coordinated to another person's goal attainment is here called promotive tension arousal. Conditions that determine whether promotive tension arousal produces behavior that facilitates or hinders another's goal attainment are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four methods are described for pursuing and resolving differences of interest in a dyad: bargaining, reliance on content-specific norms, reliance on equity norms, and reliance on the norm of mutual responsiveness. Bargaining entails a number of dilemmas and other problems that are largely avoided when dyads rely on norms. Reliance on content-specific and equity norms poses other problems that are avoided by mutual responsiveness. A theory of changing patterns in the use of these methods is advanced. The theory holds that (a) content-specific norms give way to the norm of mutual responsiveness in crises produced by changing needs, and (b) reliance on mutual responsiveness is replaced by bargaining in crises resulting from changes in the relative bargaining strength or capacity to be generous of the two members of the dyad, as perceived by one or both members. A revised norm of mutual responsiveness can be constructed in the latter kind of crisis provided the members of the dyad develop a consensus about their relative bargaining strength, feel dependent on one another, and have a minimal level of trust in one another. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contrary to some impressions, the serious study of social conflict is not a recent innovation. Further, the legacy of past studies has been cumulative, resulting in a valuable array of hypotheses, empirical generalizations, conceptual schemes, and proto-theories. The state of the field, accordingly, indicates the timely usefulness of consideration of strategy and tactics for building valid empirically-based theories. Singular propositions concerning social conflict are severely limited in empirical applicability by the necessity of invoking the rule of ceteris paribus. But full specification of relevant contexts is impracticable. A strategy proposed here is the use of theoretically specified multivariate models. This approach is illustrated by specific empirical generalizations, drawn from laboratory research, field experiments, large-scale field studies, and comparative macroanalyses. Additional possibilities for further development are suggested by stating a hypothetical "law" of collective conflict, on the basis of which additional predictive hypotheses are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many different factors enter into riots and other forms of social violence. On many occasions, particularly in the early stages, the aggression is impulsive rather than instrumental. Generally speaking, these expressive" acts are responses to aversive conditions, but they are also affected by prior learning, strength of inhibitions against aggression in the specific situation, the presence of appropriate situational cues, and also the feeling of being able to cope with the aversive conditions. Social comparisons contribute to the unpleasant situations, creating a predisposition to aggression In analyzing the role of these comparisons, it is important to specify just what groups serve as reference groups. It is suggested that unfavorable comparisons with one's own kind are particularly important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the author discusses how Kenneth Keniston in his article "The Uncommitted" and Elliot Liebow in his article "Tally's Corner," while using two very different methods of inquiry, have uncovered some striking similarities between two vastly different groups of alienates within our society. Keniston's "The Uncommitted" is a study based on three years of research with undergraduate students at Harvard University, who by virtue of psychological tests were considered to be extremely alienated. Liebow's Tally's Corner is the result of about one year's participant-observation of streetcorner men in Washington, D.C. Liebow, too, warns us that his subjects are not to be considered as representative of the average black male. It is obvious that Keniston and Liebow have studied two very different groups of people. Of all the men Liebow came to study, only one had finished high school. Keniston's subjects, as mentioned, were the elite of the educational elite. This difference is illustrated in the feelings which these two groups have about middle class values.

This article focuses on a cross-cultural study of need satisfaction and importance for operative employees. A need satisfaction questionnaire was utilized to collect data from 83 operative employees in a glass factory in the U.S. and 94 operative employees in a similar glass factory in Mexico. The two factories produced identical products for the same parent company. Product lines, production technology, job requirements and organization structure were similar. The findings show that there were significant differences in nearly every need item score between the two countries. The Mexican operatives were generally more satisfied in the needs and they also placed more importance on the needs than did the American operatives. The cluster scores for the various need categories also reflected this difference.

The autonomy of the individual in making decisions is considered to be an important determinant of job satisfaction by many contemporary investigators. For example, Likert (1961) and McGregor (1960) devote considerable attention to this factor in their theoretical approaches to organizational behavior. Moreover, Tannenbaum (1968) devotes an entire volume to this issue wherein he presents a series of programmatic investigations designed to explore the relationships between control (influence or decision making autonomy) and indices of satisfaction and organizational effectiveness. His major conclusions pertinent to this report are that total amounts of control are highly related to organizational effectiveness and member satisfaction and thai when people at the lower levels of the organization see themselves as having more control they are more satisfied and committed. However, his explanation is largely theoretical as he states that acts of control are: (a) symbolic as well as pragmatic, (b) have a positive value to organizational members which derive from the pragmatic source (exercise or power or control over activities) and the symbolic source (superiority, dominance, virility, etc.), (c) integrating psychologically. Tannenbaum also feels that higher levels of control have certain associated costs such as added responsibility and susceptibility to being controlled. Despite this rather exhaustive treatment of the issue of control the reasons for the impact of control on the outcome variables is still not altogether clear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]