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The article considers the concept of role clarity as posited by organizational theorists. The author studies the relationship between role clarity and job satisfaction, job strain, and the propensity to leave. The reaction of male and female respondents to the independent variables listed are examined. The methodology employed in the study and its findings are discussed, including a correlation analysis of male and female respondents. Concluding statements concerning hypotheses set forth in the paper are summarized.

This paper was stimulated by the controversy that has developed over the Moynihan Report and the question of the extent to which the Negro family represents an institutionalization of culturally "deviant" norms. In order to probe this question further, an attempt was made to determine some of the concomitants of discrepancies between the subjectively perceived actual and ideal family role behavior of a sample of Negro males. The results indicate that such discrepancies in family role performance are related to relatively low evaluations of one's own achievements and probability of success in goal striving, as well as relatively higher discrepancies between achievement and aspiration. These findings point to the fact that discrepancies in family role performance of the Negro male are part of a more encompassing perception of failure in the larger arena of goal-striving behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The family is considered as a locus of interpersonal interaction, within which intelligence and sex-role identity may be related to family size and birth intervals. According to the findings of John Nisbet, family size and intelligence are negatively related, and birth intervals and intelligence, positively related. Differing slightly from Miller and Swanson, the authors predict that masculinity will be maximal in intermediate sibling sets and that opportunities for over-mothering, leading to unconscious femininity, are likely in families where there are large age gaps. Theft findings do not support Brim's hypothesis, relating family size to sibling order. The authors discuss complex parent-child and sib-sib relations which may, with birth intend, account for sex-role identity and intelligence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the nature of male figure drawings produced by 100 institutionalized mentally retarded non-homosexual males, and to compare the male figure drawings by 37 mentally retarded homosexual males with those produced by an equivalent group of non-homosexuals. A secondary purpose was to ascertain which sex was drawn first by the various subjects. All of the male figure drawings were analyzed in terms of frequency according to certain predetermined characteristics. It informs that most drew their own sex first. High heels and eyelashes appeared significantly more in their drawings than in those by non-homosexuals.

The diffusion of responsibility' hypothesis as an explanation of helping behaviour (or lack of same) is qualified by suggesting that the hypothesis applies only in non-interacting situations. It is hypothesized that interacting groups who are aware of a help-demanding situation actually focus the responsibility and, therefore, take action as a group more rapidly than will a non-interacting group. Evidence is gathered in a contrived help-demanding situation employing a 2× (sex× condition) in which three conditions - alone, non-interacting (pseudo) groups, and interacting groups - are used. The evidence substantiates the major hypothesis. Speculation is also presented concerning the relationship of the 'alone' condition to the interacting and non-interacting groups and concerning sex effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses family planning in Thai culture. The effect of male-child preference on family planning, or the desire for more children is examined. The authors found that most families in Thailand show no preference for child gender, however ethnic Chinese in urban areas demonstrate a strong preference for sons. Thai family structure and reproductive behavior are examined in the broad context of sociological and demographic features of Thailand. Marriage and reproductive data are presented.

Looking times of 36 children were recorded during subject-controlled presentation of slides. Habituation was demonstrated over repeated presentation of 6 slides from a single conceptual category (e.g., animals). In an immediate generalization test the 6 habituated slides were intermixed with 6 unfamiliar but similar slides from the same category and 6 slides from a novel category (e.g., fruits). Mean looking times were shortest for familiar slides, longer for categorically similar slides, and longest for categorically novel slides. Females showed generalized habituation from the familiar slides to the categorically similar slides, but looked significantly longer at those from the novel category. Males looked significantly longer at new slides from either the similar or the novel category than at the familiar slides, but on unfamiliar slides did not significantly discriminate between the similar and novel categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been suggested that preschool children prefer to divide equally rather than follow an equity norm when distributing rewards. Results from 2 studies contradicted this, view by demonstrating that preschoolers often do give higher reward to the better of 2 performers. The tendency to give more to the better performer appeared stronger in boys than in girls. However, there was little difference between boys and girls when the children believed a female adult would evaluate the appropriateness of their distribution of the reward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the accuracy of self-evaluation on test performance of junior high school students. The results suggest that high achieving students are more accurate at self-evaluation and that they improve at a faster rate than low achieving students. Practice tends to improve the accuracy of prediction and under the conditions a' posteriori assessment may be more accurate than a' priori assessment. The two sexes do not appear to be different in their ability to assess their own performance. Accurate self-evaluation appears to be a reasonable process to incorporate into the school curriculum.

Men work harder for an attractive female experimenter than for an unattractive one. They also allow an attractive female to exert more social influence over them than an unattractive female. And females make more cooperative responses in a prisoner's dilemma game when playing with an attractive compared with an unattractive male partner. Physical attractiveness, in other words, clearly plays an important role in social interaction. As far as self regard is concerned, a number of studies report a positive relationship between sell-esteem or other forms of positive regard and acceptance of others presumably because individuals who are secure in their self a evaluation need not feel threatened by competition from others. One major way in which individuals may accept or reject a stimulus person, of course, is by judging this person as attractive or unattractive.

A series of studies was conducted to investigate possible differences in the exploratory manipulation and play behavior of human infants 7½-11½ months of age as a function of the attributes of the stimulus, the familiarity of the subject with the stimuli, the age and sex of the infants, and individual differences. The data from a variety of situations and samples coalesced on the following conclusions: (1) exploratory manipulation time was an increasing function of the contingent responsiveness of the stimulus objects (e.g., their sound potential and plasticity); (2) there were only inconsistent effects associated with the configural complexity of the objects and thus its status as an effective attribute remains ambiguous; (3) there were essentially no changes in the distribution of exploratory manipulation between 8½ and 11½ months across different levels of stimulus responsiveness; (4) there were no effects for experimentally introduced long-term familiarity with the stimulus objects, nor were there correlations between maternal ratings of toy familiarity and the length of time the infant played with a toy; (5) short-term familiarization with a given stimulus attribute temporarily eliminated that entire attribute as a variable in governing the duration of time the infant subsequently spent manipulating objects varying in that attribute; (6) infants displayed more concentrated exploration and cognitively richer play with increasing age; (7) the complexity and richness of infant play behavior cannot be easily subsumed by a few factorial dimensions; (8) the density of free-play behavior (the amount of manipulation versus noninteraction) showed selective stability during the younger but not the older ages studied; and (9) approximately half the subjects could be classified into groups which differed from one another in their style of play behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the possibility of variations in behavioral consistency as a function of diagnostic type and gender on two conformity tasks. Male and female paranoid schizophrenics, manic-depressives, and normals were used as subjects for the study. Behavioral inconsistency frequently constitutes one of the most basic criteria by which to evaluate the presence of mental disorder because it affects perceptions of stability and predictability of behavior. Male groups were composed largely of laborers, although there were a few college graduates in all-male groups.

This study of the black family structure in seven Ohio Valley cities is an effort to fill the void in historical literature on the origins of the present-day urban black family, especially the phenomenon of the lower-class "black matriarchy." Based on the manuscript census, all male- and female-headed families are compared with such demographic data as the age, sex, and family structures; size and number of children; and socioeconomic data of real estate ownership and occupations. The basic conclusions are twofold: (1) the urban black family structure during the nineteenth century was basically a two-parent, male-headed family that showed little evidence of retaining structural characteristics of the slave family, and (2) despite the increasing trend towards residential segregation, the only sign of a lessening of the two-parent family is a rise in the proportion of female-headed extended families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

in marked contrast to pre-1962 research was a reported premarital coital rate for college women (mostly sophomores) of 41 percent—a finding which appears representative of this University and was replicated in an independent follow-up study. For males, a 60 percent coital rate differed little from previous research. But in spite of their relatively liberal sexual behavior, considerable evidence was found among men and women alike for the existence of a strong double standard, a finding particularly true of males when the female involved was a potentially meaningful one in the male's life. Furthermore, while males felt their friends approved of premarital intercourse, females felt their having had intercourse would be disapproved of by friends, family and society alike. It appears that the female's liberal sexual behavior has occurred in a setting where she perceived little support for such behavior. Evidence was also found that the more physically attractive college woman, while differing little from less attractive women in sexual attitudes and values, had more noncoital and coital experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primary respondents, representing three degrees of emotional involvement with their dating partners, and their best friends evaluated the frequency with which each primary respondent's dating partner exhibited 17 characteristics. Data were used to test the hypothesis, derived from Willard Waller's analysis of idealization, that individuals tend to be differentially idealistic about their dating partners in the order of casual involvement < moderate involvement < serious involvement. Support for the hypothesis was not found among either male or female involvement groups. Male involvement groups exhibited significant differences in total idealization scores indicating decreasing idealization with increasing involvement. Significant differences were not found among female involvement groups, although Kruskal-Wallis sums of ranks data indicated a trend similar to that for males. An explanation was offered to account for findings, and suggestions concerning lines of further research were made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study related to the psychology of personal preferences. The factor loadings suggest that successful sublimation is based more on anal traits in females, but on a mixture of oral and anal characteristics in males. Aggressive masculinity is loaded with anal items in both sexes. Femininity in males seems pretty definitely related to oral trends, but in females there is a suggestion that anal influences are related to immunity. The principal axes solution for factorization seems to give slightly more meaningful results in both sexes than the centroid method, but agreement between the two methods is high. However, much remains to be done in determining significance levels for factor data. Until this is achieved, factor analysis will also have to be considered projective technique.

The article informs that a factor analysis of schizophrenic ratings on the hospital adjustment scale. One hundred hospitalized schizophrenic males were employed in this study. All subjects were chronically ill, and no attempt was made to select them as representative of the hospital. Rather, they were chosen on the basis of the availability of the HAS's. The many items of the scale, 90 in all, made it necessary to restrict the analysis to a portion of them. Thirty-five items were selected from the total number so that they represented a sampling from each of the subsections of the scale and included all the items of the scale which seemed to the investigator to have uniqueness.

The article informs that perhaps the most fruitful, as well as deeply tapping, aspect of the Rorsehach procedure resides in the human movement responses. This is particularly true if the responses are accompanied by an actual experience of movement expressed in the concept of a displacement of blot area. In the research project involving a study of different types of sex offenders, the writers felt that they had available a unique opportunity to test out theory empirical hypotheses on two groups who represent opposite ends of the continuum which runs from over-assertion to crippling lack of assertion. One hundred and six men imprisoned in Sing Sing Prison for an illegal overt sexual act comprised the subject population.

Children who perceived their academic performance as contingent on their own effort and abilities (internals) were compared on school grades and on tests of academic achievement with children who viewed their school performance as due to luck or the whims of others (externals). Internals were shown to have higher grades and achievement test scores than externals even when IQ and cognitive impulsivity were statistically controlled. Boys who took credit for their academic successes and girls who accepted blame for their failures were those most likely to have higher grades and higher achievement test scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boys were exposed to a live behavioral, a televised behavioral, or a live verbal peer model who conformed to or deviated from a prohibition rule. The rule was imposed by an adult experimenter who instructed the subjects not to play with 1 of 2 toys. Subjects were then given immediate and 1-month follow-up resistance-to-deviation tests with the toys. Play behavior with the forbidden toy was inhibited and disinhibited following exposure to conforming and deviant models, respectively, relative to a no-model control condition. The magnitude of this effect depended upon the mode of presentation of the model. Live behavioral and televised behavioral models were the most effective, and live verbal models were the least effective. Moreover, the effects of the deviant models were more stable over time than the effects of the conforming models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

80 9- to 11-year-old white children (40 males, 40 females) were exposed to 10 10-second presentations of each of 3 pictures of white and each of 3 pictures of black boys. The Ss then rated these pictures and also those of 3 previously unseen whites and blacks on a 5-point, rating scale, indicating the extent to which they "would like to bring the boy home to spend time with them and their families." The major results were: (a) the Ss as a group rated the blacks more highly than the whites; and (b) familiarization enhanced ratings made by both male and female Ss of the blacks, but not ratings of the whites (male Ss rated familiar whites below non familiar whites, whereas female Ss gave these groups virtually identical ratings). These results were discussed with reference to earlier child studies on familiarization effects and the adult literature concerned with the effects of "mere exposure". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to reveal some of the intermediate skills which might account for the superior academic performance of children who perceive their reinforcements in those situations as caused by their own behavior (internal control). Internal-external perceptions were related to three performance measures on the Witkin Embedded Figures Test in a sample of 50 elementary school age children. When the effects of age and IQ were partialled out of the internality-embedded figures relationships, prediction was reduced for males but remained at significant levels for females. Although internal females committed as many errors as external females, they were able to identify more figures correctly and in less time than their external peers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG) was modified for use with preadolescent subjects. 48 like-sex dyads were composed of third- and fourth-grade children, who flayed 50 iterations of the game. Although the focus was on the applicability of the research tool to the population studied, 3 hypotheses guided the specific design: (1) cooperative behavior would be a linear function of a ratio of differences between payoff values; (2) a cooperative response that involved turning toward the other player would not differ from a cooperative response that involved turning away from the other player; and (3) males would cooperate more often than females. Although hypothesis 1 was disconfirmed, it was found that it was easier to "forgive" someone for an injury incurred or to "repent" for an insult rendered if the person is nearby but is not faced and not seen. Females were generally more cooperative than males, contradicting hypothesis 3. It was concluded that the modified version of the PDG is applicable to a preadolescent population and could become an important tool for the study of the developmental aspects of social conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an over-all deficiency of females in India's population. The greatest deficiency is in northwestern India where the female ratio at birth is the lowest and where female mortality in infancy, in childhood, and during the reproductive period is high. This is the area where the patriarchal system has been in vogue throughout history. The female ratio is exceptionally low also in areas of new agricultural settlement, and in highly industrialized and urbanized places to which immigration has been male-selective. In peninsular India, on the other hand, where the status of females in the society has been comparatively respectable throughout the past, female-ratio is fairly close to a balance. In contrast to northwestern India, the males are outnumbered by females in the peripheral and a few inland areas where there has been male-selective out-migration. Interestingly these areas of out-migration and excess of females are those where the pressure of population on land is very acute or the agricultural resource base poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the premises and points raised in the article "Toward an Understanding of Achievement-Related Conflicts in Women," by Lilliam Robbins and Edward Robbins published in the 1972 issue of the periodical. The authors propose an alternative procedure by presenting each of the stories to both male and female respondents. This innovation has the advantage of permitting cross-gender comparisons as well as reducing the coding bias that could ensure from knowing that each story was written by a female or a male. Furthermore, a two-category scoring system was utilized in which stories in the research are scored independently by four males and five females enrolled in the laboratory class.

From the many studies dealing with cognitive styles, it has consistently been observed that males are more field independent, more articulated in their approach to certain perceptual tasks, than females. Sex differences have been found in children as well as adults not only in this country but cross-culturally as well. Researchers have noted that while sex differences are found, these differences are relatively slight compared to the range of individual differences within each sex. In other words, some females appear to be as field independent as many males in their approach to the rod-and-frame test (RFT). The consistency of this observation lends support to the feasibility of viewing sex differences in the RFT as reflecting something other than a biological tendency to respond in a certain manner. For example, this within sex variance may well be a function of those personality differences which are subsumed under the concept of sex role identification. In this frame of reference, an individual with a more masculine role identity would appear more field independent than an individual whose role identity was less masculine regardless of biological sex.

Under a non-arbitrary or reasonable set of frustrations, instigation to aggression was still present, but inhibited owing to the nature of the situation. Also, on the average, females feel as hostile as males but are more inhibited in expressing hostility in overt behavior. Finally, if discrepancy between self and ideal concepts can be considered as a measure of adjustment, as has been shown by a number of experiments, then the more maladjusted the person, the greater is the likelihood that he/she would respond with behavior aimed at injuring the instigator under both arbitrary and nonarbitrary frustrations. The analysis for sex indicates that, in general, the females are much more inhibited in reporting hostile behavior with respect to the number of hostile feelings than the males. The significant interaction of sex with self-ideal discrepancy shows that the difference in the sexes is also a function of the self-ideal discrepancy.

The meaning of conformity behavior depends upon the sex of the conforming individual. Additional implications of the findings can be deduced from a consideration of the experimental situations from which they have been obtained. The study explores the possibility that cultural practices make some of these responses to A-B-X conflicts appropriate for males, and others appropriate for females. The study investigates sex differences in the use of the five responses, and attempts to determine whether the personality correlates of the various responses are different for the two sexes. The personality variables with which this study is concerned are those measured by the nine standard diagnostic subscales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. Psychologists have found that some of the subscales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory differentiated between conformers and nonconformers, but that the relationships were contingent upon the sex of the person.

A study was done testing the hypothesis that variations in Scale of Manifest Anxiety, MAS scores reflect different defense mechanisms. Forty undergraduate students, 20 males and 20 females, were selected as high or low anxious on the basis of scores on the Herneman version of the MAS. Each S took part in a paired-associate learning task and a retention task 24 hours later. The stimuli of the pairs were words selected from S's word association test as being either emotional or neutral. The responses of the pairs were nonsense syllables. The basic hypothesis of the study was that high and low-anxious Ss would show different patterns of recall for the emotional and neutral pairs. The results failed to indicate any relationship between rate of learning and anxiety level, sex, or type of paired associate. The retention measures failed to reveal any relationship to anxiety level or sex. However, there was a significant tendency for poorer recall of emotional pairs in both groups, with no evidence for the predicted interaction between anxiety level and type of word. It is suggested that the failure to find differential patterns of recall does not support the idea that variations in anxiety scores reflect different defensive behaviors.

The article attempts to estimate the expectancy chances of an individual being hospitalized for a mental disease at least once in England and Wales. The estimation can be done by using two types of empirical information and one general assumption. The empirical information is age specific hospitalization rates during a particular year. The chances of an individual, of 0 age reaching the ages of 10, 11 and 12. Both pieces of empirical information are available from official sources. The Registrar General publishes an abridged life table, which gives existing death rates, and estimates the numbers of children aged under 1 year likely to survive to various ages up to 75 plus. Rates of first hospitalization are calculated in the reports not for particular years, but for different age groups. Survival rates will be calculated on numbers reaching the upper limit of the age group, and hospitalization rates will be assessed by the rates for the age group multiplied by the number of years in the age group. The results suggest that 6.79 percent of males born in 1959 and 10.33 per cent of females will spend some time in a mental hospital during their lives.

The article cites a study which examines pupillary response and sexual interest. The article presents an experiment that was designed to test whether 10 male and 10 female undergraduate students in psychology at the University of South Carolina would respond differentially to pictures of semi-nude males and Imitates. The students were not informed of the purpose of the experiment. The results indicate a tendency for the male students to dilate more to the semi-nude female pictures and for females to display the opposite pattern. However, for the clothed pictures, the males dilated more to male pictures.

The article discusses a revised deterioration formula for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. In his most recent text concerned with the WAIS, D. Wechsler presents a formula for calculating mental deterioration which differs somewhat from that presented in the Wechsler-Bellevue Form I. The WAIS formula was apparently changed as a result of the changed conditions of standardization of the WAIS, which, unlike the W-B I, was given to a nationwide sample instead of to a restricted New York City norm group, included many more cases in each age group, and equalized the number of cases from both sexes. A critique of Wechsler's deterioration formula for the WAIS is offered because it neglected the important matter of significant sex differences in intellectual abilities and because it did not make optimal use of the differential test score method. Two revised formulae were devised, one for males and one for females. The female formula was much more successful than Wechsler's in maximizing deterioration slope.

The article discusses the clinical scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The scales were developed so that items marked in the direction characteristic of a particular diagnostic group were scored plus for that scale, while items marked in the direction characteristic of the normal group were scored zero. Therefore, the higher the total score on any scale the more deviant the performance from normality. The article compares the Adjective Check List Heilbrun Need Scale scores of 26 college females with low points on the Depression scale of the MMPI to the scores of 20 college females with high points on this scale.

The article informs that a study of sex offenders' at Sing Sing Prison, the subjects customarily receive an extensive psychological examination as part of their clinical appraisal. Since the self-concept and body image are integral factors in motivational dynamics, and projective drawings seem especially suited to tap these personality components, a series of studies focusing on the H-T-P's of these men was planned. Clinical experience suggests that it is easier for a subject to attribute more conflicted or emotionally disturbing negative traits and attitudes to the drawn Tree than to the drawn Person because the former is "less close to home" as a self-portrait. The study group included 84 males at Sing Sing Prison. All of them were imprisoned for an illegal overt sexual act or an illegal act with sexual motivations or components.

The article discusses a note on sex differences on the Wechsler-Bellevue tests. The subtests and IQ's of the Wechsler-Bellevue for 145 males and 90 females, all white outpatients at a psychiatric clinic, were compared. Of the 14 comparisons, seven differences were significant at the .01 level at least and four more at the .05 level or less, all favoring the males. While investigating the relationship between Rorschach's Experience Balance and intellectual functioning as sampled by the D. Wechsler, sex differences on that test were noticed and judged worthy of reporting since little information of this type is available.

The article states that in 1958, H.C. Quay and D.R. Peterson reported a brief scale for the differentiation of delinquent and nondelinquent males. In several cross-validational samples of American boys, approximately 67 per cent of the subjects (Ss) were correctly identified by the measure. The applicability of such scales to other populations, however, is always open to question, and the present study was undertaken to determine whether similar differentiation could be achieved between delinquent and nondelinquent adolescents in Japan.