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The article reports on war and inflation in Spain from 1780-1800. During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, wars or revolutions drove one country after another into paper-money inflation. Under the impact of torrential issues, weak governments and doubtful military prospects. Continental currency and the assignats lost practically all their value and gave way to bimetallic standards. With invasion by French legions momentarily expected, the Bank of England suspended specie payments in 1797 and although depreciation was never disastrous, resumption was not feasible until six years after Waterloo. In 1775 Count Campomanes, one of the ablest economists and greatest ministers in Spanish history, listed as a great national asset the freedom from paper-money inflation that other European countries had suffered. Only five years later war with England forced Spain to issue and over issue paper currency. Appeals to patriotism, intervention in the bullion market, strict prohibition and a host of fiscal measures failed to prevent severe depreciation.

It is now well recognized that in the century before 1670 English traders to the Mediterranean enjoyed remarkable success selling increasing quantities of textiles, with a growing proportion completely finished, downgrading Turkey and Italy to the position of raw material suppliers, and taking over a large part of the Mediterranean carrying trade. It is also clear that after 1700 it was the Mediterranean trade, especially that with Spain and Portugal, which redeemed England's very modest trading performance with Europe. The chief interest of the activities of businessman John Oldbury and his group of business associates is that they date from the generation, which separates these two periods and therefore shed some light on the main commodity trades in Anglo-Iberian commerce in the last thirty years of the seventeenth century. Spain and Portugal were two agricultural countries ruling large colonial empires, and yet lacking sufficient manufacturing capacity even to begin to meet metropolitan demands. The success of English textiles in the area is to be accounted for by the virtually total default of indigenous industry. All English exports were of central, if not crucial, importance to the receiving economies and their dependent colonies, and it was this basic fact, which underlay England's dominant position. Iberian trade to England, on the other hand, was not equally indispensable.

The Spain of modern times has been an ultra-conservative nation in virtually every respect: economic, political, religious, and social. But Spain has attained some measure of financial and economic stability within the last five years, and now stands on the threshold of a new economic era. An efficient marketing structure will be a necessary concomitant of any real economic advancement. The author surveys the current state of marketing in Spain, and indicates some of the steps that will be required for the improvement of the Spanish marketing system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the characteristics of residential zones in Madrid, Spain. The primary difference between zones is found to lie in a new bourgeoisie life-style dimension. Working women are found to be the best indicator of this dimension, which also involves servants, natives of Madrid and high degrees of literacy. Fertility-related considerations, however, are unrelated to working women, and this is explained as due to the availability of domestic help and "women-oriented" working arrangements. Fertility and socioeconomic status are found to be interrelated and constitute a second dimension of residential segregation. In conclusion, Madrid is examined in relation to both more and less industrialized cities, leading to a further modification of social area theory contentions concerning the ecology of stratification in developing cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the Vth International Congress of Allergology which will be held from October 11-16, 1964 at the Medical School in Madrid, Spain. Persons wishing to contribute papers to the congress should write to the Local Organizing Secretary F. Lahoz in Madrid.

A notable intensification of conflict between political and economic interest-groups has, within recent months, brought into the open, sensationally in many instances, a number of basic problems relating to the exploitation of the instrumentalities for disseminating news, opinion, and entertainment. The chronicling of all events in the field of communications having reference to public-opinion management is beyond the scope of this review. The purpose will be to underscore a few recent events and circumstances which seem to have special significance in relation to broad questions of public opinion. Civil war in Spain calls attention with peculiar force to the difficulties of maintaining neutrality safeguards under modern conditions. Recent of the neutrality problem have tended to place the primary emphasis upon basic considerations of economic self-interest and national honor. Several circumstances lend special importance to the Spanish conflict in relation to the neutrality problem and opinion formation and control.

In this paper, a statistical analysis is made of the social and economic characteristics associated with the decline of marital fertility in Spain. Variables examined on a provincial basis are marriage patterns, marital fertility, and indices of industrialization, urbanization, and literacy. Cross-section and time-series analyses of the data do not indicate a strong association between fertility and indicators of development. Rural-urban differentials in marital fertility are small when examined by province.

This article discusses the use of copper sheathing to protect the hulls of wooden ships from the ravages of the worm and the encrustations of weeds and barnacles in the eighteenth century. Though there are a few references to instances of sheathing with copper or its alloys before the middle of the eighteenth century, the overwhelming mass of references to sheathing up to that time are to sheathing with wood, a doubling of the outside planking of the ship below the waterline. The limited efficiency of wooden sheathing made it inevitable that other materials would be tried. Lead sheathing appears to have been known to the Romans, and was revived in the sixteenth century in Spain and Portugal, and used experimentally by this country on at least one occasion. Most works on the subject state that the first beginnings of copper sheathing date from the 1760's, but as early as 1708 the Navy was being approached by Charles Parry and others who had recently applied for a patent for sheathing ships with copper which without any hindrance to their sailing, will preserve them from worms and barnacles in their voyages to the East and West Indies, and prevent all occasions of covering and repairing them.

The article presents a section of abstracts of articles related to marketing, specifically focused on advertising and promotion, including "Impact of Promotion on Grower Returns for Citrus," by Peter L. Henderson; "Measuring Effects of Varying Levels of Advertising Investments on Sales of Fluid Milk," by P.L. Henderson; and "The Boom in Spain," by George Lazarus.

The approach to the Spanish colonial bureaucracy is that of the "conflicting standards analysis;' first suggested by Andrew Gunder Frank. Given the ambiguity of goals and the frequent conflict among the standards, all the laws could not be enforced simultaneously. The prevalence of mutually conflicting standards, which prevented a sub-ordinate from meeting all the standards at once, gave subordinates a voice in decision making without jeopardizing the centralized control of their superiors. Historians have traditionally assumed that the Spanish administration had a nonambiguous set of goals and that standards of conduct for its administrative agents were not mutually conflicting. The conflicting-standards hypothesis, however, provides a more satisfactory explanation of the wide gap between the law and its observance in the Spanish empire. Particular emphasis is given to an analysis of elements of centralization (the residencia and the visita) and those of decentralization ("I obey but do not execute" formula). This approach not only applies to the Spanish-American administration; it may also throw some light on the structure and nature of several kinds of bureaucratic organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Will successful marketing institutions in economically advanced nations succeed when introduced into less developed economies? A study of Spain's recent experience with supermarkets reveals some of the roadblocks that hold back the adoption of new marketing institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses key issues related to entrepreneurship which are relevant to the founders, heirs and managers of firms in Spain. In a society such as the Spanish one, in which the task of industrializing the country has not been assumed by the state, the capitalist entrepreneur occupies a preeminent position. Managers are those who take on the direction of the firm as representatives of its owners: a family, a few business partners, a bank, a financial group, or a large number of shareholders. The founders are those who have taken an active part in the creation of the firm, who typically show by their answers a personality profoundly devoted to the firm, which has its negative as well as positive aspects. The group of heirs is possibly the most heterogeneous, since it includes those at the head of firms started by their grand-parents. In industrial Spain, Catalonian firms are the best known, and given the region's industrial tradition, there are more firms founded by the grandfather than in the rest of industrialized Spain. The concept of familialism in the firms in Spain gives a kind of closeness to the company and lends to relations among the personnel, especially managerial personnel, a character very different from that found in contractual and profit-making relationships.

Examines the economic impact of the designation of Madrid as the permanent capital of Spain by King Philip II from 1560-1660. Economic decline in the cities of Castile and Toledo; Comparison of the economic structures of Madrid and Toledo.

The article focuses on Marshal Pétain, ambassador of France to Spain. The article considers whether conspiracy or providence was operative during Pétain's ambassadorship to Spain and whether either related to his rise to power. It therefore examines this controversial segment of his career; a period, which though widely publicized has received little attention from historians. Pétain's career, because of his heading of the unpopular Vichy regime, gave rise to an intensely polemical debate.

The article comments on the article "British Armaments and European Industrialization, 1890-1914: The Spanish Case Re-Examined," by R.J. Harrison. Harrison's article examined the economic and political conditions in Spain from 1890 to 1914. It is discusses the industrialization of European countries and how Great Britain was imbibed on building armaments. The article also considers Spain's working population that is engaged in agriculture during the period. It explores the scandal involving the Spanish naval program of the government of Antonio Maura. Official Assessor of the Naval Ministry, Juan Macias, accused the whole government of prevarication in the adjudication of tenders for the squadron.

The article looks at the economic and political conditions in Spain from 1890 to 1914, the period when European countries were industrialized and Great Britain was imbibed on building armaments. It discusses the controversy on the contract awarded by the Spanish government to a British company to construct several naval ships. The percentage of Spain's working population that is engaged in agriculture during the period. The article also discusses the Maura legislation, which involved the elimination of a program for the economic regeneration of Spain based on the improvement of agricultural yields, the development of communications, the extension of the market for consumer goods, and the creation and safeguarding of agricultural employment.

The article examines the attempts of the manufacturers in Catalonia, Spain to overcome the effects of the loss of the Cuban export market in 1898. Judged by western European standards, nineteenth-century Catalonia displayed few features of a modern industrial region. In the region's leading sector, the cotton industry, small-scale units predominated throughout the century as did a cult of individualism spread by the continuance of family firms, out-of-date machinery, and an unhealthy disregard for the virtues of an efficient banking system. It was the manufacturing classes of Catalonia who led the demand for the protection of national industry. From 1780 they organized themselves into a series of associations with this objective solely in mind. An important consequence of Catalonia's industrial retardation and of the defensive attitude of a good many of its entrepreneurs was the relative unimportance of overseas markets for the region's manufactured goods. The overwhelming majority of Catalonia's manufactures found an outlet in the rest of the peninsula.

The article offers information on Colchicum autumnale L. It states that this is a perennial herb, the underground portion of which is an ovoid corm about 5 cm. in diameter covered with the dark brown remains of old leaves. It also mentions that in many localities this plant has been destroyed for it is identified to be poisonous to cattle. This plant is found in the south-east part of Ireland, particularly the Nore Valley in Kilkenny. It also grows in damp meadows and pastures in central Europe, east to Lithuania and Romania and south to north Italy and Spain.

The cytogeographic distribution and morphology of Festuca taxa in sections Bovinae and Scariosae has been compared with the results of experimental hybridization between them. Two groups have been established, the first is predominantly Moroccan and includes F. mairei (2n = 28), F. arundinacea varieties atlantigena forma pseudo-mairei (2n = 56), letourneuxiana and cirtensis (2n = 70). These taxa are closely related to the diploid F. scariosa endemic in the Spanish Sierra Nevada. Their distinctive morphological features are due to the inclusion of the scariosa genome. The second group, predominantly European, including F. arundinacea var. glaucescens (2n = 28) and F. arundinacea var. genuina (2n = 42), is similarly associated with the diploid F. pratensis. It is suggested that evolution in this species complex involved opportunities in a previous era for hybridization between tetraploid taxa now separated geographically. From such hybrids the higher polyploids can be derived. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the geographical activities classification of the Casa De La Contraction of Spain. The recent union of Castile and Aragon in Spain, with the consequent bracing of absolutism, made it a comparatively easy matter for the Sovereigns to select a private body of administrators to assist in the organization and control of new interests. Seeing that hitherto there had never been a situation quite comparable to this which had arisen and that none of the existing functionaries of government had ever been called upon to give consideration to problems touching the organization of newly acquired trans-oceanic possessions.

Fragmentation of holdings denotes the situation in which the average farm consists of numerous small parcels scattered haphazardly about in the area within a given rural community. In Spain as a whole there is an average of 17 separate tracts per farm, and the phenomenon is particularly acute in the northwestern one-fourth of the country where the number of parcels per farm runs as high as 84 in the Province of Soria and averages above 40 in Burgos, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Segovia, and Zamora. Most of the social and economic effects of fragmentation are adverse, although the spreading of risks and the diffusion of a family's interests to all parts of the community in which it resides may be advantageous. As sociologists from the United States accept professional responsibilities in other parts of the world, many of them are forced to deal in one way or another with the phenomenon of fragmentation of agricultural holdings. This constitutes an intellectual challenge of the first order of magnitude since this subject has seldom figured in the contemplations and writings of the sociologists in this country.

The article discusses the attempt of Spanish liberals to resolve the problem of how to give for mass participation in the life of the nation without threatening the final moral, aesthetic, cultural and political authority of a directing élite. It notes that most Spanish rightists believed that success in safeguarding the established social order against mounting revolutionary pressures depended upon providing to the masses some participation.

The article discusses the relationship of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco with the Axis power leaders, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. It presents an analysis regarding Franco's his objectives and policies during the World War II as well as how his religious belief influence his governance in the war and in the country. It highlights the decision of Spain to enter the war, changing her former stand as a neutral country.

The article explores the concept of Spanish nationalism during the twentieth century. It has been noted that Spanish nationalism during this period has served as a device with which the Spanish Army and the possessing classes might avoid basic social and political conflict. The author also stresses that during this period, the effort of establishing radical nationalism was also hindered by the influences of the Spanish Catholic Church.

The article focuses on the nationalism of Spaniards against the French occupation. It relates that the wants of the Spanish for Spain's liberation from foreign domination determines the cause of the renaissance of patriotism following the May 2, 1808 revolution against French Emperor, Napoleon. It mentions that the Spanish patriotism was responsible for the liberation of Spain, distinctive of Spaniards abiding love of country and their devotion to the throne and the altar.

The article presents a study and profile of Juan Donoso Cortés, as a public servant and spokesman of the forces of counter-revolution in the period after 1848. Details on his career especially on his record of service to the Crown and to the government, are also given attention which includes his affiliations, talents, and inclinations. A table of the principal points of his career is also provided.

Investigates the evolution of Spanish prices in the nineteenth century. Price series of individual commodities; Comparison of Spanish price with British prices; Reasons for divergence of Spanish prices from the international movement after 1875.

This article makes certain comparisons between the Spanish insurance industry and the insurance industry in other parts of the world, particularly the United States. Through such comparisons it is hoped that insurance practices may be improved, particularly in developing nations of the world. The Spanish insurance industry is characterized by several features which contrast with those in other nations. Major differences include centralized regulation and control, about average growth of premium income, relative undercapitalization, free entry to insurance markets for both domestic and alien insurers, profitable underwriting (except for voluntary automobile insurance) and innovative participation and cooperation with the industry by government. The catastrophic loss plan in Spain deserves special study as one way to handle ‘uninsurable’ risks which often plague developing nations by restricting industrial growth. Among the problems facing Spanish insurers are relatively high distribution expenses, inadequate levels of education for insurance, and gaps in coverage for risks commonly insured in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outlines the pattern of Spain's international economic relationships in the context of the country's departure from autarkic policies. Structure of the economy; Contribution of elements to the reversal of Spanish economic policy; Reflection of the economic reorientation in the balance of payments.

Discusses the coastal geomorphology of Majorca, an island in Spain. Divisibility of the large-scale morphology of the Balearic Islands to two basic structural units; Description of the physiographic characteristics of the areas; Association of cliff coasts with deeper waters offshore.

Focuses on the factors causing the excessive dispersion of landholdings in Spain. Division of territories among settlers; Expropriation of large estates; Details on the principles of equal sharing.

The article focuses on demography of Spain during the eighteenth century. All authors agree that the population of Spain at the beginning of the 18th century, at the end of the wars of succession, was below the levels reached in the late 16th century. Enumerations and count of the population were taken during this time, but their varying degree of completeness makes it difficult to provide full statistical support for this generally held opinion. The 18th century marks the beginning of a new cycle of population growth. The peace of Utrecht initiated a period of relative prosperity; the plague disappeared and in spite of the frequent epidemic outbreaks of yellow fever and smallpox, "catastrophic" mortality began effectively to be checked. The gains in population through natural increase in normal years were reduced, but not cancelled, by losses in the years of high mortality. In spite of diverging opinions on the reliability of the various censuses, it is almost certain that the 18th century exhibited a steady rate of population growth.

This article provides a historical account of internal transpiration, the status of carters and carting organizations under the Spanish government between 1476 and 1700, based on the literary works of Julius Klein. The only coherent description of even a portion of the internal transportation of early modern Spain is buried in the work of Julius Klein. In 1920 Klein devoted three pages of his book on the Mesta to a description of cart transport and its relationship to the government. He described a national organization of carters, called the "Cabana Real de Carreteros," which was recognized by Isabella I in 1497 and given a number of privileges similar to those of the Mesta. Among the many reforms which Isabella's reign brought to Castile was the direct assistance for the carters which Klein suggested, though not in the form he described. In revising and clarifying its relationship with the carters, the crown systematized privileges previously used irregularly. At the same time it defined the carters' obligation to give priority to royal demands.