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The article comments on film-making process. The film-making process requires that a person reduce an abstract idea to a visual form. One must be able to visualize people doing something and then capture that on film. In one sense, film-making is a test of the hypothesis that sociology is a behavioral science. Students should learn how to make theoretically based films for these and the additional reason that thus they can better learn their discipline. By writing a paper, the good student learns his subject. He learns the ideas and that he can control them. But, in writing, he often learns to become a manipulator of words and loses any concern about the behavioral reference they may or may not have. In making a film, however, the student does come face to face with connecting his ideas to human behavior. In film-making, one can delineate a set of roles which, taken together, result in the finished product. There is the producer, the person who has the ultimate responsibility for the film, the one who, nominally at least, has the concept of the entire production.

The paper uses a proposition-strategy- consequence analysis as a vehicle for presenting behavioral science findings in a form useful to the designer or administrator of a professional development system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an analyzes of effectiveness of questionnaire technique of gathering data in behavioral sciences. The reason for the wider use of the paper and pencil technique in any area of the study of human behavior has been its relative simplicity and its wider coverage. The questionnaire technique of gathering data in the behavioral sciences has been subjected to increasing criticism. The criticism has varied from attacks on specific techniques and studies to categoric dismissal of all attitude investigations as useless "verbalizations in response to symbolic abstractions." One of the most serious weaknesses of the paper and pencil approach is that the symbolized responses of a subject in a test situation may not truly indicate one's response in a situation calling for non-verbalized action. It is believed that questionnaires are instruments of doubtful accuracy for measuring even ideological behavior. The conclusion is that more research into the accuracy and consistency of questionnaire responses is needed.

The article presents comments of the author on sociologist Stewart Macaulay's research paper regarding doctrinal approach to law with the so-called behavioral approach. Macaulay's paper shows the wisdom of going beyond an exegesis of legal doctrines to a study of how law is affected by, and, in turn, affects social relationships. His paper in effect points to contract law as a sociologically significant area of inquiry. For a contract is by definition a type of social relationship whose function is to ensure predictability and security in business transaction. Macaulay's preliminary finding that noncontractual relations are common in industry is of interest to students of organization theory as well as to students of the sociology of law. Macaulay's paper deals with the problem of inter-organizational relations as regards the use or non-use of contracts in business transactions. In fact, legal and non-legal norms relative to contracts may be viewed as mechanisms for regulating inter-organizational relations.

I am grateful to Professor Dubin for the careful attention he has given to the somewhat neglected pattern variables and for his considerable effort in exploring their potential usefulness. His article has led to a serious reconsideration of the problems he has raised-in particular, the relation between what he refers to as Model I (the pattern variables as formulated in Toward a General Theory of Action ) and Model II (the paradigm of four functional problems of systems of action from Working Papers, and later publications). Dubin suggests that the usefulness of Model II is impaired by too drastic a condensation, and that it cannot be reconciled with Model I. The Editor's invitation to comment on his paper has given me the opportunity to work out an overdue clarification of the ways in which Model II builds on and goes beyond, rather than replaces, Model I. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Six of the articles in this issue of the Review are concerned with deviant behavior. And three articles--those by Robert Dubin and Richard A. Cloward, upon which Professor Merton comments, and the following paper by Dorothy L. Meler and Wendell Bell--are clearly in the Durkheimian tradition. It is not surprising that these contributions conspicuously exploit Merton's essay, "Social Structure and Anomie," first published in 1938, itself a modern landmark in that tradition. These papers not only illustrate the continuing influence of Durkheim but they specify possibilities, at least, of cumulative theoretical development. Professor Merton's commentary--written at short notice, and at the request of a persistent but grateful editor--attests once more to the viability of the tradition and promises further significant analysis of deviant behavior, to be sure, and of conformity conduct as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recognizing the inadequacy of those attempts to explain the phenomenon of religious conversion via over-concern with the more sensational conversions to the "off-beat" sects and cults, this paper represents an attempt to increase the comprehensiveness of our understanding of religious conversion through art inclusion within its scope of those relatively neglected conversions within and between the more conventional socio-religious bodies. For its basic orientation, this theoretical endeavor employs a model of deviancy. Also of central importance to this undertaking is the development of a conversion typology based upon the factors of the degree and the direction of structural change, and the degree and the direction of content change within the belief system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Culture and Social Character, several authors have written essays primarily devoted to a criticism of The Lonely Crowd. An unfortunate aspect of the former book is that it is most difficult to ascertain whether the total impact of the criticism is to destroy the concepts of inner- and other-directedness or whether the analysis has enhanced their meaningfulness by correcting flaws in methodology and emphasis. Also, if the latter is true, there is the further problem of a consistent use of the Riesman topology. In the first part of this paper I will bring together various statements from Culture and Social Character that put the question of the validity of the concepts in better perspective, define the terms inner- and other-directedness more rigorously, and show the usefulness of the concepts in their sociological context as action (behavior) patterns coming about in response to differing structural settings. The first section of the paper will in a sense establish benchmark of meaning for the concepts by solidifying the argument for their use in describing particular types of action patterns. In later sections I will speculate as to the psychological and historical bases of the Riesman topology relying on work that has been published after The Lonely Crowd. Since my discussion will range over several areas, it seems appropriate to offer first a rather lengthy sketch of my entire argument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collective behavior has been a long standing focal point of sociological interest. From its earliest use by Robert E. Park, the concept has been an expression of the sociologist's concern with various dramatic processes of social control, especially those manifesting rapid social change. While the work of specialists in collective behavior has emphasized the study of very specific and delimited events such as crowds, fashions, and fads, the subject matter of collective behavior has come to include the most crucial society-wide movements and upheavals. Moreover, empirical work in this field has reflected a sophisticated understanding of the difficulties of observing and recording complex aspects of social reality which envelop the observer and resist simplified coding and data-reduction techniques. By contrast, the theoretical relevance of the collective behavior framework has been problematic until recently and open to extensive debate. In fact, there was a period of time, after the initial contributions by Robert E. Park, in which the theoretical disputations about the nature of collective behavior appeared to divert creative energies. As a specialized orientation collective behavior became encapsulated and immune to the theoretical developments in other aspects of sociological thinking. In recent years, say the last five years, there has been a renewed interest in the collective behavior approach. The following papers by Neil Smelser and Ralph Turner, which provided the basis for an American Sociological Association panel, give expression to the search for a new balance between theory and empirical enterprise. These papers and the immediate discussion they provoked indicate that some sociologists are using the rubric to focus on crucial substantive issues of contemporary social change. In part, the dramatic events of the civil rights movement in the United States and the equally dramatic transformation of social structure in the new nations have contributed to this renaissance. In part, the response is defensive against the persistent criticism from outside disciplines concerning the excessive expenditure of intellectual energies on trivial processes of social control. What is important in any case is that collective behavior, although strictly sociological in its approach, supplies a link to the interests of political scientists and historians who have long been concerned with revolutions and mass movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents comments of the author on the article "Is Prediction Feasible in Social Work? An Inquiry Based Upon a Sociological Study of Parole Records," by Ernest W. Burgess. I am to discuss Burgess' paper with respect to its general methodology. A personal reference, which will disclose my standpoint of interest, will perhaps be pardoned. In a publication of 1914, I endeavored to find a basis for predicting the future political behavior of farmers and working men with respect to each other. For this purpose I developed certain indices based on the previously recorded votes of individuals of both classes in state legislatures.' In what I conceive to be their essentials, my method and that which Burgess has used in the paper of today are the same. We both have taken account of simple alternatives in behavior, an aye or no vote in one instance; conformity with parole or its violation in the other. In neither case, that is, has the behavior measured been regarded as variable. We both have employed the percentage of individuals in a general group who comply with one of the alternatives as a normal expectancy, or probability ratio by which to compare the corresponding behavior tendencies of subgroups, as expressed by similar percentages within the latter.

A trend toward increasing use in geographical research of methods and concepts developed and tested in other social sciences seems likely to provide new insights into the effects of weather and climate on human behavior. Psychological reactions of a sample of Great Plains wheat farmers to the threat of a sudden storm are examined by means of a variant of the Thematic Apperception Test. The pictured situation is assessed as an unpredictable environmental press potentially in opposition to the inner need to achieve. The primary reaction to the threat is the mobilization of one's own resources towards rational, task-oriented action. However, uncertainty remains and this is reflected in a subsidiary theme in which attempts to alleviate anxiety are made by the essentially religious appeal to transcendental powers to lessen or stay the environmental threat. It is suggested that the TAT could prove useful for measuring many aspects of the man-environment relationships including that of regional personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article, the author presents an analysis of the paper by John P. Fertakis, which attempts to draw conclusions with respect to accounting on the basis of unrelated or only indirectly related studies in the behavioral sciences. According to the author, his paper merely contains several examples of what may become even more prevalent in accounting. Accounting research frequently has its tentacles extended into the research efforts of scientists in the fields of psychology, sociology, economics, statistics, operations research, management science, etc. In so doing, accountants are looking to others for answers in order to avoid the dirty and painstakingly slow, expensive, and methodical means by which empirical evidence can be conceived and nurtured in their own studies. But this outside empirical evidence often flounders like a fish out of water when plucked from the environment in which it was generated. In addition, accountants must heed the cautions of scientists who generated and/or analyzed the cited empirical evidence. In supplying more information in annual reports, accounts are thereby making it possible for users to make finer distinctions between more companies. Professor Fertakis should note that his suggested "seven items" for a standard report are not one-dimensional at all.

Human behavior, which is invariably a mixture of reactionary and forward-moving tendencies, is a complex thing and organizations function best when management works with instead of against human attributes. At all levels, the healthy organization must satisfy not only individual but group, inter-group, and the whole organization's needs for both growth and maintenance of the status quo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents comments on the research paper "An Experimental Study of Attitude Change, Advertising, and Usage in New Product Introduction," which was published in the 1972 issue of "Journal of Advertising." The paper researched attitude change towards a household cleaning product. The authors feel that the study should have made an indication over the direction of attitude change and that the experimental design of the project could have been explained better by the process of counter-attitudinal advocacy.

This paper examines the process wherein persons move from disparate points in space all time one to common location at time two. Theoretical explanations of this phenomenon are reviewed and critically examined. An alternate interpretation is advanced and supported by data from a study of one non-periodic assembling process. A correlation of R =` 67 is obtained between time receipt of assembling instructions, and related a facilities, and the completion of the assembling process. We discuss time implications of these results, and the alternate interpretation for future theory' and research on the assembling process and other aspects of collective behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The societal reaction perspective, which sees stabilized deviant behavior as being primarily a consequence of the reactions of others, has been very much in vogue during the 1960's. This perspective, however, has received little systematic evaluation. This paper is an attempt to meet the lack of critical evaluation by examining the evidence in a particular area of deviance-that of mental illness. The evidence strongly suggests that the societal reaction explanation of how and why persons enter the mentally ill role is incorrect, for it appears that there Is a fairly rigorous (if largely informal) screening process and that the substantial majority of person who are hospitalized are suffering from a serious disturbance. Furthermore, the societal reaction theorists would appear to have greatly overstated the degree to which secondary deviance is associated with mental hospitalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is generally agreed that the minimax solution to a two-person zero-sum matrix game is intuitively satisfactory. Now in many applications of game theory, a game is not described a priori in matrix (or "normal" or "strategic") form, but rather in extensive form, i.e. by its rules. A game described in such a way may be reduced to a matrix game by means of the concept of "strategy". If, moreover, it is of perfect recall, then all mixed strategies, and in particular the optimal strategies of each player, are equivalent to behavior strategies. The usual conclusion from these considerations is that for 2-person 0-sum games in extensive form, the minimax solution is intuitively satisfactory; and that in games of perfect recall, in particular, the players would do well to play in accordance with optimal (minimax) behavior strategies. In this paper we shall discuss some examples that, we believe, cast doubt on these conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every scientific study has its own unique case history. Unfortunately, most scientific papers present a greatly distorted and static image of the true history and sociology of a research project. This paper represents an attempt to report on selected aspects of the actual growth and development of a simulation project, especially as that process affected the development of a novel method for validating simulation models. The paper also represents a philosophical analysis of the concept of simulation, especially as that analysis formed an integral part of the study's development. One of the paper's main theses is that the teleology or purpose behind the construction of a simulation model is an ever present task-master guiding and influencing all the phases of a model's construction and validation. A general thesis is that a researcher's philosophy of science is as characteristic of him (i.e., his psychology) as it is of the phenomena he typically studies. The implications of these theses are illustrated in terms of the simulation of the engineering design behavior of a practicing mechanical engineer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bowman has developed a theory which claims that a manager makes good decisions on the average but that he may exhibit a high variance in his behavior. This paper proposes three general criteria which must be satisfied for this theory to have validity. These teats are then used to evaluate a production planning model for an electronics firm where the rules are based on "average" past behavior. Several interesting results emerge when comparing the production plans based on an "average" rule with the actual plans for the company. When the manager has limited information regarding future sales, as when he develops his initial production estimates, then a plan based on average behavior performs considerably better than actual initial plans. However, when environmental cues provide reliable information on future sales of specific items (as when revisions are made) then actual decisions are clearly superior to those suggested by an average rule. This case study offers insight into the potential usefulness as well as the limitations of Bowman's hypothesis. Suggestions for future research in this general area conclude the discussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a report of a study of innovation of consumer nondurable products. A simple hypothesis about consumer behavior in short run, nonequilibrium situations is presented. Following classical economic methodology, the behavior of individuals is then aggregated. This aggregate equation form is tested and shown to be not rejected by the data. The effect of marketing actions of the firm upon consumer behavior is also explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to assess the utility of the transactional model of individual stress. According to the logic of the model, whether persons manifest stress is a multiplicative function of both situational and individual characteristics. The paper briefly discusses possible advantages of the perspective over other frames of reference. Then it describes a pilot study designed to determine whether hypotheses based on the transactional model could be supported empirically. Utilizing interview data from a small probability sample of all adults in the state of Missouri, scales were constructed by an improved method of item analysis for use as indicators of variations in stress and the situational and individual factors. Comparing stress scores by situational and individual variables produced results indicative of a multiplicative relationship and thus supportive of theories derived from the transactional perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research and theory relative to the lower class adolescent male peer group has focused largely on the culture and behavior of group members. Further, the focus has been on the different types of behavior characteristic of different groups. While this analysis has been quite fruitful, it has led us away from attempting to place all such groups on any single continuum which might involve structure as well as culture. Specifically, the concept of "gang" has either been used loosely to include all groups of lower class male adolescents or has been omitted altogether. This paper maintains that the concept of gang still has considerable utility as a category for research. This paper will be presented in five parts: (1) an analysis of the concept as used in the past into a set of empirical variables; (2) a description of a method used to get data on these variables; (3) a presentation of data relative to these variables; (4) an analysis of the correlation of these variables; and (5) an attempt to place gangs on continue representing variables found in small groups in other contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the paper entitled "The Federalist," a compilation of essays that exposed the principles of constitutional republicanism. The author emphasizes that the paper considered the acceptance and successful operation of the government system on human action. Moreover, the paper contains many political references including the voice of the enlightened reasons, the motives of public goods and the obligations of duty.

The paper studies a pattern of thought, sometimes called "the practical syllogism". The first premise of this pattern is a statement about an agent's intention to achieve a certain result. The second premise is a statement about what he considers necessary for him to do in order to achieve this aim. The conclusion is a statement to the effect, roughly speaking, that the agent proceeds to do the necessary things. What is the logical status of this type of argument or inference? The paper purports to show that the argument, when it is logically conclusive, is a schema of understanding behaviour in the light of assumed intentions and cognitive attitudes of an agent The argument also has uses for explanatory and predictive purposes. The author contends that, as a schema of explanation, the practical inference pattern holds a position in the human and social sciences similar to that of the deductive-nomological inference pattern ("the covering law model") in the natural sciences. Since the patterns are of different logical type, there is thus also a difference in kind between explanation in the natural sciences and in the sciences of man. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with a hypothetico-deductive model regarding the "self". The model consists of 12 circular propositions, involving the variates of (1) phenomenal field, (2) situational symbol, (3) balance, and (4) conformity. The self organizes a "phenomenal field" under a "situational symbol", and his "balance ' depends on the extent he experiences a disturbance in the phenomenal field. The performance of the situational symbol is "con"fruity'. The propositions are then examined in the light of available empirical data. By and large, there are good supporting data, and this model may be useful for further empirical studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociologists and anthropologists often say that personality or individual behavior is the result of learning the culture. Another way to express this idea is to say that personality is a product of social conditioning. The typical sociological bias about personality is a heavy emphasis on social pressures on the individual. This common view in sociology, that personality is essentially a mold filled by social experience, is often conveyed to students by the sociological climate of opinion, an unspoken but communicated assumption. The purpose of this article is to point out some of the implications of the view of individual behavior in terms of a teachable organism moving in an environment in which the right moves are learned through reward and punishment. Briefly, this paper tries to point out that certain other assumptions about personality and culture are to be found associated with or are implicit in the idea that personality results from learning the culture. These assumptions, and the learning theory most commonly used, are in general mechanistic and reductionist. If sociologists are going to analyze personality as learning the culture, they will either have to accept the related assumptions or eliminate them on valid grounds.

The study of socialization has lacked a consistent methodology that would permit comparisons among studies. More general and widely applicable measures are needed if the process of socialization is to be fully and appropriately investigated. This paper presents a set of related measures indexing various aspects of cognitive change as part of the socialization process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents three "climate of opinion" studies that illustrate some of the possibilities, as well as some of the problems, that arise when survey analysts turn to the study of effects of social contexts. Description of the studies; Importance of surveys to sociologists; Valuable information that may be obtained from surveys when the right questions are asked; Comparison of the studies.

The article focuses on crisis situations and ideological revaluations. Students of social change and practitioners attempting to predict human behavior have long been interested in changes in systems of belief. In this article the author describes the kinds of situations which have produced ideological changes as well as the mechanisms involved in these revaluations. It has repeatedly been noted that systems of belief tend to be conservative, in the sense of having their status and identity maintained by means of various psychological mechanisms such as suppression of incompatible cues, weighing of conflicting evidence, or rationalization. The present paper is concerned with circumstances under which these supporting mechanisms become totally or partially ineffective, leaving the individual with an invalidated or inoperative ideology. This type of condition is here referred to as a crisis situation. This paper has attempts to spell out the mechanisms involved in this process and their operation, with the premise that clear thinking about the ideology of individuals is a sine qua non for an understanding of the "why" and "how" of social movements.

The article presents a paper which considers the theoretical and empirical problems involved in the analysis of hominid dental evolution during the Pleistocene epoch. It discusses two trends in the evolution of hominid teeth and relates them to environmental factors. It also cites the complicating nature of human culture behavior and explains the reasons behind the reductions in the size of teeth and complexity of molar patterns. The author asserts that the illustrated teeth in the study demonstrates the adaptation of man on his cultural environment during the Pleistocene.

This paper attempts to devise a parsimonious explanation of human behavior in collectivities. For this purpose three main variables have been identified, which, when combined in a specific manner, serve to incorporate the major determinants of behavior. These variables, which will be put into technical jargon in this paper, include (I) a pre-existing attitude, (2) an emotional context, and (3) a situational effect. An individual's need for social approval (NSA), developed in previous interactional situations, is the preexisting attitude with which the paper is concerned. Need-for-social-approval may be simply defined as the degree to which one attempts to impress others in order to gain their approval. The emotional context of a situation may be accounted for by the intensity of the situation. In this sense, intensity may be viewed as density. That is, intensity may be defined as the quantity of interaction per time period or the quantity of interaction per geographical space. The situational effects upon behavior are the most important since they can eradicate the effects of the other two variables.

During the 1973 annual meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA), the author attended a roundtable discussion chaired by Professor Robert Friedrichs. The whole meeting was devoted to discussing the possibility of sociologist B.F. Skinner's influence emerging in the U.S. sociology, a topic that Friedrichs had explored in a paper he delivered earlier at one of the ASA sessions. In reference to the Skinnerian influence on sociology, the author criticizes sociologist Donald Tarter's article published in the November 1973 issue of the periodical "The American Sociologist," which stated that Friedrichs' eminence in the discipline of sociology and the Skinnerian influence is justified. The author's intention is to point out that Tarter's article is at best naive as regards his misunderstanding of sociology and that the presuppositions underlying his argument suggest an ideological position that can only be repugnant to anyone committed to a society that is as free and open as possible. The author substantiates his indictments by first commenting on what he believes to be Tarter's sociological naivety on the basis of a passage in which Tarter writes "Behavioral complexities never before thought possible have emerged in the form of pigeons playing ping-pong or chimps breaking through the communication barrier to man."

This article replies to David L. Hull's article entitled "Systemic Dynamic Social Theory". It was observed that Hull deplores the assertion that underlying processes cannot be inferred from single overt performances. Overt performance is a small part of total behavior, thus, process-performance relations are not invariant. Contentiously, Hull transfers complexity-intensity relations, posited for psychological phenomena, to societal phenomena. Wave length is related to color - for light waves, but not for radio waves. Similarly, complexity applies to societal and psychological, intensity only to psychological phenomena. Constancy of societal complexity, given invariance of biological base, is a theoretical conclusion.

The basic hypothesis of this study is that a meaningful typology of consumer behavior may be segmented along the lines of social character delineated by David Riesman. Under experimental conditions inner- and other-directed subjects indicated a differential preference for specially created advertisements developed to appeal to these two character types. Further, the study analyzed differential exposure to mass media and differential preference for mass media content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple model of consumer behavior is used to structure data on environmental change, organizational mobility, and satisfaction taken from studies of Turkish and French élites.¹ Despite the widely different subject matter of the two data sets, a microeconomic formulation proved conceptually fruitful. The consumer-behavior paradigm is forwarded as a means of integrating findings from diverse areas of interest; some of the limitations of the approach are also discussed. The consumer-behavior model promises to be particularly useful in relating economic, political, and organizational change to individual behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper first reviews the descriptions and structural explanations for variations, in urban population densities in the United States over several decades. The research reviewed focuses on shifts in the technology and economics of travel as being the major influences on urban density distributions. These variables appear to be somewhat less adequate as explanations of the process in recent decades. After reviewing these findings and suggesting several research questions, we attempt to assess the evidence relating variations in population density to several other aspects of human behavior. A review of the research relating high population densities to various "social pathologies" indicates that little of the variance in rates of these pathologies can be attributed to density independently of other social structural variables. Some important consequences of population density have been reported, however, and possible research directions are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A conference paper about the methodological and theoretical frameworks of rural values is presented. It discusses the unobstrusive or nonreactive approach and the five areas of human problems that affects the theory of value orientation. Five areas of human problems include the innate nature, super-nature, and the modes of human activity.

This paper deals with the problem of whether or not a search activity should be started and, if started, whether or not it should be continued. This problem suggests a model that is described. The model gives rise to a general functional equation for which existence and uniqueness conditions are given. Several examples are discussed, solutions to the specific functional equations appropriate to the examples are given, and the optimal policies are characterized [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on an attempt to incorporate the element of personal selectivity or discrimination into the analysis of public-goods sharing arrangements. The justification for this attempt is that discrimination is a more realistic assumption about human behavior for a theory of public goods from which to draw implications for public policy. A good example is presented by non-discrimination laws applying to publicly provided goods which must be shared in consumption. The application of some of these laws represents an attempt to determine the composition of sharing groups for particular public outputs. In this paper an attempt is made to develop a model of consumption sharing that includes a discrimination variable, and it is used to discuss the problems of applying a non-exclusion rule to consumption-sharing arrangements of various scales. The discussion emphasizes the influence of club cost functions on the potential for de facto effects along wealth or income lines under the impact of the non-exclusion rule. It also undertakes an assessment of the operational meaning of freedom of association in the context of the interaction processes related to public goods.

This article discusses a psychological analysis of business decisions and expectations. J. M. Keynes, in describing psychological characteristics of human nature, did not borrow from psychologists but proposed what he called a fundamental psychological law referring to the propensity to consume under the influence of changes in income. Keynes also ignored the work of psychologists in describing certain subjective factors that contribute to the formation of producers' expectations. When the interest of economists shifted from the equilibrium of an industry as a whole to that of the individual firm, psychology gained in importance. As a subjective concept, it became one of the central concepts in economic theory. Government action should be directed to counteract the development of cumulative expectations, the expectation of a cumulative decrease or increase of prices, profits and incomes, but should not attempt to hinder the emergence of all kinds of definite expectations. The analysis of this requirement, the study of the question whether such action is practicable, transcends the limits of this paper. It is fitting to close with the remark that here is to be found one of the most important and most fruitful fields of economic psychology.

This paper is concerned with testing the hypothesis that women will report more psychiatric symptoms than will men with an equal number of physical illnesses. Our hypothesis arises from an assessment of the societal definitions of what is "appropriate" or "inappropriate" behavior for someone occupying the status of male or female. In our view, men are expected to be less expressive than women in their emotional behavior. Analysis of data collected from a sample of 278 adults in 1965 and 1966 provides strong support for the hypothesis. On two indices consisting of what are judged to be psychological and psychophysiological symptoms, a greater percentage of women than men have "high" scores. Two other indices, containing physiological and ambiguous items, show a tendency for men to have slightly higher scores. Since the first two indices contain 15 items and the other two only 7, not unexpectedly women are higher than men on the over-all mental health inventory. This pattern is revealed in the analysis of data for both 1965 and 1966, and is also shown in analysis of "turnover" during the one-year period. A further finding is that women are more likely to seek medical care than are men with the same number of physical illnesses and similar psychiatric symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]