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During the academic year 1958/59, a survey was made of interlibrary loan requests originating at Columbia University Medical Library. A high percentage of requests came from a relatively few requesters. However, analysis based on "one-time" and "repeat" categories for the patron and his requests indicated a situation less extreme than "monopoly use by an elite group." Requests were classed by type, age, language, title, etc., and were also correlated with such variables as citation source, requester's academic status and experience, and estimated importance of material. The analysis aims to uncover patterns significant for cooperative planning. Did the repeat and one-time requester show distinctive characteristics and habits? Which materials attracted more repeat requests? Findings generally favored cooperation, at least for a library servicing nonstudent researchers. Unpredictability of researchers' needs was noted. Apart from specific findings, this paper offers methods for statistical analysis of interlibrary loans.

The article presents a study concerning the "parts" of cut-paper art products in an attempt to know the influence of teacher motivation and non-motivation on its overall aesthetic quality in art education. In relation, the definition of terms, population, and the experiment's procedure are presented. The study shows that the amount of overall aesthetic quality judged in the "parts" had much influence on the overall aesthetic quality in the final art product. It suggests that all complex relationships should be carefully defined and explored to understand the relation among the creator, the creative process, and the final art product.

The article presents the author's views on the ideals of Eastern women. There are a considerable number of Western men in whom there is a survival of the Eastern view about women, although they take very good care not to carry the Oriental notion of impersonality and sacrifice into their conception of what is seemly in men. This ideal is not imposed upon women by men, but is the national and eternal ideal of both sexes, It is less obviously ridiculous for an Oriental to assert that women like seclusion, ignorance, and subjection, because when any living creature is accustomed from birth to certain conditions, that creature suffers when transplanted to other conditions. The author firmly believes that he has seen so many women gain joy and hope by the opening of doors: seen dull eyes brighten and sad lips smile to hear words spoken which at last express their inmost and hitherto unfriended thoughts and aspirations and sorrows, The depression of life and energy, of will and genius, that comes from slavery is spiritual murder, and the kind of slavery which is involved in the subjection of one sex to the other is the most penetrating conceivable; for it permeates flesh and spirit. It is life-long, it corrupts the ethical standard of both slave and slave-owner, so that no one yet knows what women can do nor to what heights men can rise.

Tins paper is intended as an effort at taking-stock of the reference group concept after nearly three decades of use, the latter two of which have been marked by its more than ample employment. Its popularity indeed has so frequently led to its serving as an all-purpose post hoc explanation of behavior that it has led to the wry definition, "Your reference group is a group that you behave like and you behave like them because they're your reference group" (Cohen, 1962: 104). The inconsistencies, lack of clarity, but also areas of agreement which have marked the varied formulations of the concept, will be apparent from the following review and commentary. The Final discussion indicates some of the matters still to be considered in the use of thin important but perhaps overworked concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between the quantity and quality of scientific output of 120 university physicists was studied. Although these two variables are highly correlated, some physicists produce many papers of little significance and others produce a Jew papers of great significance. The responses of the community of physicists to these distinct patterns of research publication were investigated. Quality of output is more significant than quantity in eliciting recognition through the receipt of awards, appointment to prestigious academic departments, and being widely known to one's colleagues. The reward system operates to encourage creative scientists to be highly productive, to divert the energies of less creative physicists into other channels, and to produce a higher correlation between quantity and quality of output in the top departments than in the weaker departments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information regarding the problems faced by the developing countries in their course of development. The problems faced by the developing countries of the world are numerous and of critical importance. These problems include those of industrialization and economic development, of changing traditional social institutions such as stratification and power mechanisms so that they facilitate rather than inhibit modernization, and of providing ever-increasing percentages of citizens with an education that teaches the economic and social skills requisite to assuming rewarding roles in a changing society. However, in the array of social and behavioral sciences that have been brought to bear upon the problems of developing countries, social psychology has been noticeably absent. Anthropologists have carried over their interest in traditional societies to include concern with the problems these societies face in the processes of modernization and development, particularly as these processes affect values and institutions such as the family and religion.

This paper examines the hypothesis that residential mobility is disruptive of social relations; and it seeks to identify patterns of adaptation which emerge from that disruption. Among other things, it is found that women who moved between 1966 and 1969 were more frequently sociable both before and after their move than those who did not move. Further, differential patterns of disruption hold for intra- and extra-neighborhood contacts. There is, in addition, a period of heightened social interaction on the part of the most recent movers. Spatial mobility, it is concluded, does exert changes on the social lives of women in households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that with regard to attributes associated with individuals that is personality traits, the criterion problem is very often submerged in the multitude of possible measures that are advanced. It would seem that the ultimate criterion should be the ability to classify individuals in a consistent manner that is in accord with the expert definition of the variable. This means that if the judges find it satisfactory, a paper-and-pencil test could be provided which would measure the characteristic of "authoritarian." This would leave open the question, however, of whether authoritarianism is a behavior among individuals or a disposition to answer a paper-and-pencil questionnaire in a given way. If the assertion is that authoritarianism is a tendency to behave in a given way in interpersonal relations rather than in a given way to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, then the criterion problem is not satisfied even when the judges agree that certain paper-and-pencil responses should be classified as authoritarian.

This paper is concerned with some of the often neglected behavioral problems associated with the practice of management by objectives. These include problems relating to managerial style, adapting to change, interpersonal skills, setting objectives, measurement, and management by objectives quality control. The paper concludes with some criticisms of the current state of management by objectives research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper traces the development of interest in consumer socialization. Major policy and conceptual issues are posed, and research in several areas of study is reviewed. Directions for research are specified in three key areas: consumer socialization processes, content of learning, and permanence of early learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The basic hypothesis of this paper is that occupational group ties are stronger in Britain than in the United States. A number of test implications are inferred from this hypothesis and the relevant evidence on each of these, to be found in existing comparative studies, is presented. Occupations in the two countries are first compared as independent collectivities with respect to their autonomy, socialization, colleague relationships, deviance, and occupational identity. They are then considered within their normal organizational environment, and the differences between the two countries in the relationship between these occupational groups and the administration of the organization are compared. Three types of organization are distinguished: where one group forms a large majority, where two groups are approximately equal, and where one or more groups form a small minority. Some proposals are made for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a dearth of relevant empirical evidence, the proposition that the extended family encourages and facilitates high fertility has become widely accepted. This paper summarizes the main theoretical discussions, presents illustrative data, and analyzes the conceptual and methodological adequacy of reported studies. It concludes that it is essential to distinguish between individual and aggregate levels of analysis and between co-residence and kin interaction. It would also be valuable to define more carefully the various types of family structure, to keep the time reference of fertility (current or cumulative) congruent with that of family structure (cross-sectional or longitudinal), to take into account age at marriage and extent of celibacy, and to be more alert to the possibility of opposing causal forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a study of the scientific output of British University chemists. The relationships between three different aspects of scientists' work (quantity, quality and industrial orientation) were examined, and whilst quantity and quality were highly correlated, industrial orientation appeared to represent a different dimension of research performance. Quality of output was the best Predictor of the recognition received by a chemist from the scientific community (in terms of medals, appointment to advisory committees, etc), his industrial involvement much the least good. It appears that a minority of British university chemists are oriented towards the industrial, rather than the basic research community in terms of their contributions and of their rewards. The influence of institutional affiliation upon recognition, for a given level of output, was examined. As in studies of American scientists, but in contrast to earlier work on British ones, institutional affiliation did appear to influence the recognition received. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Path analysis has been widely employed in recent years as a concise means of simultaneously analyzing the interrelationships among a large number of variables. The utility of this method in family research is demonstrated in the present paper. Four independent variables —socio-economic status, aptitude, educational plans, and marriage expectations—are related to the age at marriage among a subsample of 4,000 married young people from a nationwide longitudinal survey. Of the four independent variables, expected age at marriage, stated some time prior to marriage, is shown through path analysis to be the best single predictor of actual marriage age. The additional accuracy in prediction through assessment of the other variables is negligible. A multiple causality model, based on path analysis and including additional variables to those employed in this paper, is advocated as a means to optimize prediction of marriage- and family-related outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reviews research findings from various European countries (including the author's own studies in Vienna) on intergenerational relations between parents and their grown-up children. Numerous data disprove certain important features of the classical theory of the isolated nuclear family in industrialized and urbanized society. Although, according to newer data, joint living is a minority pattern, effective interaction (economic support, help in both ways and mutual visiting) is frequent and emotionally important particularly to the elderly. ‘Intimacy—but at a distance—corresponds to wishes of both generations. A special section of the paper is dedicated to propositions for theoretical innovation in the problem area studied including, e.g., a criticism of role theory, a criticism of statements on family cohesion based on findings of help patterns only. The paper postulates an amalgamation of major aspects of social gerontology with a sociology of the family cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's criticism to the key points presented in a paper focusing on familial development, selective needs and predictive theory. His paper fail to spell out the relationships between the structural framework developed in the earlier chapters of the paper including the hypotheses set forth in the following chapters. The theorists appear to depend more on intuition that on any explicit theory of relationships when it comes to drawing up concrete lists of paired situations.

This paper reviews studies published between 1964 and May 1968 on laboratory training in human relations and its use in attempts to enhance the effectiveness of organizations. After some of the difficulties in conducting such research in this area are considered, findings are examined as they relate to five issues in the design and the application of laboratory training. These findings are also compared with findings from a similar review reported by the author four years ago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociologists have given insufficient attention to the influence of structural properties on the process of socialization. This paper sets forth a set of typologies which is expected to place limits on, but not necessarily determine, the behavioral alternatives within socialization systems. The outline can be used as a heuristic device for comparative analysis of socialization research and for the design and evaluation of socialization programs. Three aspects of the structure of socialization systems are discussed--the novice-agent relationship, the setting, and the target roles. Novice-agent relationships are characterized by four dimensions: 1) specification, 2) relative anomie, 3) incumbency of the target role, and 4) role repetition. Variations in types of setting are: 1) formality of setting, 2) individual or group socialization, 3) serial and disjunctive socialization. Target roles may vary along six dimensions: 1) voluntary, involuntary or semi-voluntary entrance, 2) time boundaries of roles, 3) valuation of roles, 4) socialization into social group or social category, 5) degree of institutionalization of roles, and 6) relation of role to novice's identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates and attempts to explain some relationships between control achieved through structural arrangements and control achieved through supervisory style. Eighty large governmental psychiatric hospitals and 52 small private hospitals were studied. With some exceptions--and these apparently traceable either to the differential effects of size or sponsorship--maximum structural control (approximating that of bureaucratic organizations) was found in association with a limited employee control, and, minimal structural control (resembling that of less bureaucratic institutions) was found in association with more pervasive employee control. In general, the scope of employee control varied inversely with the scope of patient control--sometimes because of structural arrangements and sometimes because of supervisory style. These basic patterns are discussed in their relation to classical Weberian conceptions of formal organizations, as well as to more recent theoretical formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on an analysis of public school teaching staffs as variations of primary groups. From survey data, schools were classified according to indices of social relations among teachers. Several dimensions of the primary group were treated as attributes of school staffs in defining crucial tasks of teaching and relating them to peer influence. With both reported behavior and attitudes as dependent variables, hypotheses concerning the differential impact of three types of peer relations were tested. It was found that certain forms of social structure influenced behavior alone in some settings; in other settings, both behavior and attitudes were affected. Moreover, how the tasks of teaching were defined was an important organizational condition for the efficacy of given forms of peer influence. Findings generally supported the hypotheses developed, although the restricted definition of peer influence and its situationally specific meaning restrict the interpretation of data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The administrator frequently bases decisions and actions on his perception of other people. Behavioral scientists have been systematically studying the process of perception, focusing in recent years on interpersonal perception. Although their work has been done largely in laboratory settings, their conclusions have relevance for the administrator. This paper examines some of the recent work on interpersonal perception and suggests some implications for administrative practice. No easy means is proposed to make objective what is essentially a subjective process; nevertheless it is possible to indicate some guidelines and precautions to use in this complex aspect of interpersonal relations. Understanding the process of interpersonal perception is one means of trying to avoid gross errors in interpersonal judgments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that the bases of formal authority—legitimacy and position—need to be distinguished from sources of functional authority—technical competence and human relations skills—which support and often compete with formal authority. Four analytical types of authority relations are developed from the literature and the examination of superior-subordinate relationships among seventysix of the seventy-seven members of three public service organizations. In all three organizations, but particularly among welfare workers, considerable importance was attributed to legitimacy and position as bases of authority. Police officers, however, singled out authority of person more frequently than either authority inherent in position or authority derived from superiors. Welfare organization members attached more importance to legitimacy and position than to technical competence and experience as sources of authority. School employees stressed professional competence as a base of authority much more than either police officers or welfare workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports one "spin-off" from the basic technology of sensitivity training, which is now widely used for inducing attitudinal and behavioral change in organizations. Changes in attitudes of members of a complex business organization are reported in this paper, and they support the value of the "confrontation design." Similar results have been obtained in other business and government settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the possibilities and limitations of cross-national and cross-regional research. In approaching cross-national and cross-regional research, the author has taken for granted the fundamental rationale of comparative study as such, and disregarded general problems of its validity. This is so, as the last Congress considered this issue, and the main points of these deliberations are on record. Instead, the author has tried to focus on more specific topics of conceptualization, methodology and organization, as they bear directly upon rural social study. Accordingly, the papers included have two major foci and fall into two groups; in each of which the author has tried to secure a discussion of both theoretical as well as applied and practical aspects. The first group, focuses on problems of the proper meaning or nature of comparative research and on the essential qualities it must have to be effective. The second group is related to problems attending the execution of comparative projects. The first of the two deals mainly with major questions of methodology: firstly, with problems of interpersonal relations, including those of political clearance, of tackling cultural variations and of stereotyping; and secondly, with technical ones, chiefly the comparability of secondary data, the utilization of and relationship to theoretical models and the standardization of field procedures.

Building upon the sexual socialization ideas of Gagnon and Simon and others which have stressed male-female differences in premarital sexual behavior, the social and psychological management of the first coital experience is examined. Using data from a 1967 national sample of university undergraduates, the idea of a double standard is explicated in terms of reportage about first coitus—to whom the person reports the event, how many people, how soon, and the like. Evidence pointing to a pattern of male "ego-sex" emerges within the context of the so-called "male bond" (male peers as audiences for sexual prowess), which contrasts sharply with the modal females's management of first coitus. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of future trends in gender styles and premarital sexuality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pluralist and interest-group (or modified Marxian) views of society offer two competing sets of hypotheses concerning the relationship between objective and subjective social status and the role of other variables in this relations/tip. Using a 1964 national sample survey of the United States, this paper specifies and examines these hypotheses more fully. Starting with a series of simple formulations, and building up to a fuller multivariate recursive system, the paper concludes that the data are more consistent with the interest-group approach than they are with the pluralist approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theory is formulated with which to analyze transactions in social relationships. Economic types of exchange characterized by calculation and self-interest on the part of the actors are contrasted with more "social" forms of transaction such as occur in the cases of role relationships with interlocking rights and obligations and persons strongly attached to one another. The social factors and conditions determining the types of transaction likely to occur between actors are examined in the paper. The key idea in this respect is that the structural and temporal context of interaction, including the past and anticipated character of their relationship, affects actors' orientations toward one another, their preferences, decisions and interaction patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While social scientists are aware that the relationship between an independent and dependent variable may be spurious, they are much less aware that the absence of relationship may be equally spurious. The chief reason is that the relationship is concealed by a suppressor test factor. This paper supplements earlier discussions of this topic by considering the logical status of suppressor test factors and compensating influences. Examples of antecedent, intervening, and component suppressor variables and of compensating influences are provided. It shows that, in a causal sense, standard test factors and suppressor test factors generate opposite interpretations of spuriousness, but in a formal sense they are the same. Several substantive contributions of suppressor variables to social science are discussed. Suppressor variables are not rarities, but may actually appear as often as standard test factors in research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Just as the practice of administration is changing — as it is generally acknowledged to be — so is the study of administration. This process of viable, increasing change is the result not only of rapid social alteration and technical advancements, but also the number of able critics, the very activeness of professional organizations, the financial cornucopia of foundations interested in administrative processes, and the growing legions of social-behavioral scientists applying their knowledge and methods to the problems of administration. In these times of change it is becoming a prevalent suspicion that contemporary theories of administration are inadequate and perhaps even misleading and erroneous. In fact, a popular sport among students of administration is the cataloging, labeling, re-labeling and criticizing of the various administrative theories. These critics see the theories as being too abstract or too concrete, too limited to the descriptive or too drastically over reaching their evidence, too culture-bound, time-bound, or institution-bound, and too 'unscientific', that is, neither reliable nor valid. This paper reflects the present uneasiness with administrative research and theory, yet hopefully does not add to the current outcries or complaints. Rather we hope to offer a strategy for research on the administrative process which should be less open to the above charges. This strategy in essence suggests we do not over formalize too early in theory development, rather that we systematize the process of the step-by-step thinking we rely upon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses evaluation and cross-cultural application of a Japanese form of the survey of interpersonal values. There is a growing literature reporting studies in which American paper and- pencil personality tests have been translated and then used in cross-cultural research. The present paper reports such an evaluation of a Japanese translation of the Survey of Interpersonal Values (SIV) prior to cross-cultural application. The scales in the SIV originally had been identified by means of an item factor analysis. A similar analysis was proposed for the translated items in order to determine whether the same constructs would emerge as factors in the Japanese culture. The results of the factor analysis indicated that the constructs incorporated in the SIV do emerge as factors in the Japanese culture, and that the large majority of the items in translation have their principle loadings on the same factors as did the corresponding original items. Data were gathered at five Japanese universities for samples of 258 males and 505 females selected so as to be comparable in educational and socioeconomic level to the individuals comprising the American normative group. In addition, 249 male and 227 female students were similarly selected and tested at three different Japanese urban high schools. The latter two groups were to be compared with an American sample made up of students from five Southern California high schools, of similar age and grade level.

Within the present paper, we have attempted to clarify the role of social structural variables in shaping friendships. Our interest in the friendship relationship has stemmed from the conviction that it constitutes a role relationship in which healthier behavior may be observed. In addition we feel that the study of such a relationship might lead to better understanding of the manner in which personality and social structural variables interact. Social structure has been broadly conceived as the framework which defines and delineates the range of friendships available to an individual. The variable of social status and role are viewed as being particularly important in structuring communication and interaction patterns of participants within a social setting, and in predisposing certain relationships more than others to move beyond the formally prescribed level of interaction. The fact that role prescriptions within a given social structure may force certain participants to become involved in interlocking interactions is viewed as having a two-fold significance. On one hand, it allows each participant to explore the desirability of becoming involved in a less formally prescribed interaction with his co-participant. On the other hand, if one or both participants do not wish to become involved in a less formal personality-centered type of interaction, the fact that the relationship has been formed and continues to be based upon social structure allows for the maintenance of a less affectively personally involved relationship without its disintegration. We have suggested that as the nature of the friendship relationship is explored more fully, it becomes clear that it must be viewed as a special type of role relationship--an integrative one in the sense that the multiple roles of each participant are brought together, shared and organized. In this connection, we hypothesize that the more central are the roles that each partner can share with the other in their friendship relationship, the greater the amount of closeness possible and the more satisfaction they experience in their mutual friendship interaction. `Within the present paper, we have spoken as if there were no individual differences in response to social structure. The fact that this isn't the case presents numerous opportunities for further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tested experimentally the relationship between group cohesiveness, defined as the willingness of individuals to stay in their group, and power, and acceptance. Power was defined as the ability to satisfy needs and acceptance as to the willingness to do so. A division of groups into three categories was suggested. In an instrumental group people seek to receive power and acceptance; in a mutual acceptance group people join having in mind to give and to take power and acceptance; in a vectorial group the aim of the people is to give power and acceptance either to some individuals or to an ideal. It was found that cohesiveness is better correlated to power than to acceptance in the instrumental and vectorial groups, and better correlated to acceptance in the mutual acceptance group. When all three groups were exposed to stress, cohesiveness has suffered most in the instrumental group and least in the vectorial group. All these findings are tentative and more experiments are forthcoming in order to corroborate the data obtained in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper offers the generalizations that habituated attitudes are influential factors in determining the seriousness of the handicaps to successful adjustment, that the obstacles to such adjustment increase in difficulty as the nature of the attitude distributions move from the leptokurtic curve, through the normal, and platykurtic, to the balanced U-curve forms, and that the J-curve form imposes mild or extreme handicaps as one moves through a range of conflict situations from the average of the homogeneous group to opposing groups. The permeability of the barriers to successful adjustment is, also, related to the steepness of the slopes, which may vary within limits, for each of the four characteristic non-normal curves. The supporting argument is largely based upon the generalization that adjustment is relatively easy where the attitudes held conform to the average of the group in which conflicts arise, and that social skills adequate to meet conflict situations with success are most regularly found where these skills cover average situations. These generalizations on curve forms and slopes are applied to an analysis of the seriousness of adjustmental handicaps in the Lehigh sample and in the field of international relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that youth tend to follow parental wishes in future oriented situations and peer wishes in current oriented situations. This paper evaluates this assumption and explores the utility of differing types of situations in measuring the parent and peer orientations of youth. It is found that (a) the content of the situation is more important in the choice of courses of action than the pressures of either parents or peers, and (b) parent-peer orientations have a systematic, but minimal influence, on choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]