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Considerable attention has been given recently to the perplexing problem of the relationship between attitudes and behavior (Ehrlich, 1969; Deutscher, 1969; Warner and DeFleur, 1969; Ajzen et al., 1970; Lastrucci, 1970; Tarter, 1970). Methodological issues have been debated, the lack of congruence between attitudes and behavior has been examined, and a variety of solutions have been offered. We are told, for example, that the continuing poor correlation between measured attitudes and overt behavior requires us to search for the intervening variable or variables which apparently obtain (Ehrlich, 1969); or to employ the "direct observation" of the phenomenon under investigation rather than try to extrapolate from paper-and-pencil tests to behavior (Deutscher, 1969); or to develop theories that, in turn, enable us to find indicators that are more valid than the paper-and-pencil type (Lastrueci, 1970); or to simply admit that attitudes as "presently conceptualized play no real role in behavior" (Tarter, 1970). A number of important aspects of attitude research, however, have been obscured or omitted in these discussions. For the surprising aspect of the situation is not, as has often been implied, the lack of congruence between attitudes and behavior, but the persistent use of research designs that are inappropriate for the complexity of the subject under investigation. Further, it is surprising that researchers have failed to draw out other important implications of their research. That is, the fact that an attitude does not lead directly to a behavior does not justify the assertion that attitudes play no role in behavior, or that attitude research lacks significant implications for social life. The basis for this latter statement will be shown below in a discussion of the values of attitude research. It may be that inadequate research designs, valued for their simplicity rather than their appropriateness, are a manifestation of the "publish or perish" syndrome. In any ease, this paper attempts to outline the problems and the values of attitude research, and to demonstrate thereby that such research is of great significance for the understanding of social phenomena. If that significance seems minimized by those studies that have found poor correlation between attitudes and behavior, the fault lies both in the failure to create research designs that reflect the complexity of the problem and in the tendency to exalt the importance of the proximate causes of overt behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the activity of marketing research can be fruitfully viewed within a statistical decision theoretic model, relatively little is known concerning the descriptive aspects of how people-managers or consumers-revise probabilities in the light of new information. This paper reports the results of a behavioral study in probability revision and the implications of these findings for the operational use of decision theoretic concepts in prescriptive and descriptive choice-making models [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides a conclusion to a series of articles about the approaches to the problems of war and peace. One paper distinguishes between those who do research in terms of governments and those who do research in terms of peoples. It is possible to make another distinction which overlaps to some degree the first two. This is a distinction between those who approach the problem in terms of macroscopic units, such as the nation, and those who essentially use the individual as their unit of analysis. Of the papers presented, one came close to the first type of emphasis. Operational research and regulatory research, would also fall in this category. Along with this difference in terms of the units of analysis used in the two approaches, there appears also to be a difference in the assumption about the nature of the phenomenon of war. Those who deal with the individual tend to conceive of war as a deviation that essentially occurs because of some failure in the mechanisms of maintaining peace. The extreme of this position is represented by the psychoanalytic approach suggesting that war is an aspect of irrational behavior, related to irrelevant, personal motivations, usually traceable to childhood experiences.

In this paper we review recent efforts to examine attitude-behavior inconsistency as a multivariate research problem. Rather than either assuming a one to one relationship or documenting the contrary; recent researchers have reconceptualized the problem as identifying the conditions which affect the relationship. Although numerous variables have been examined in the recent literature, most of the multivariate research seems to be addressed to three underlying issues: one, the extent to which measurement invalidity may depress the observed attitude-behavior relationship; two, the extent to which other competing but unmeasured attitudes may depress the observed attitude-behavior relationship; and three, the extent to which attitude incongruent social norms depress the observed attitude-behavior relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Etiology or the inquiry into the causes of criminal and delinquent behavior is unquestionably the very heart of modern concern with crime and delinquency. Any progressive action in handling the problems of criminality and delinquency has as its springboard an etiological concept, explicit or implicit. The only types of crime and delinquency control that can be operated without any reference to the causes of the undesirable behavior are control through the threat and execution of punishment for the forbidden act without any regard for the offender and control by erecting mechanical obstacles in the way of the potential offender. One of the main points of this paper then is that the criminologists engaged in the study of the causes of delinquent and criminal behavior should not turn their backs on the analysis of the concept of cause, but on the contrary, should make a sustained effort to state their hypotheses as clearly as possible in this respect and carry out their research within a dearly established frame of reference. The concept of cause of delinquent behavior suggested in this paper might be referred to as a product of the pragmatic theory of causation. It is believed that this concept would best serve the purposes of theoretical organization of the scientific knowledge in the field, be most effective in directing further research and be most meaningful as a frame of reference for treatment and prevention.

Researchers have long been aware that when they become part of the system they are investigating, their own behavior may a.fleet the behavior they wish to study. Little data has been collected on the effect of respondents on the researcher and the consequences of this on tho research process. The problem is described and analyzed in this paper. We contend that respondents who have special qualities may intrude upon the researcher's role and make it difficult for him to collect necessary data. An illustration is presented from the authors' study of stripteasers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the problems faced by scientists who contemplate research in prison. According to the author they are beset by a number of special problems, both the homely, practical ones of technique and more formal ones of methodology. The study that this paper presents is based upon experience of researcher both as a working prison psychologist and as a researcher in a prison. The author remarks that the prisoner is beset by overwhelming desires, frustrations, and antagonisms. Compared with him the nonprisoner generally presents a far more neutral psychological field, involving much weaker forces. This is one of the basic reasons which necessitates the development of unique research techniques for the prisoner. The prisoner may simply refuse to comply with the experimenter's request. If forced to do so by autocratic authority his behavior will not be that desired. Many valuable experimental techniques are thus rendered either totally inapplicable or at best more difficult to apply.

This paper presents four concepts that can be useful in family diagnosis and treatment-cultural value orientation, scapegoating, role differentiation, and transmission of behavioral defects. These concepts offer the caseworker a frame of reference for viewing family systems and behavior and helping to develop guides for Intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a paper-and-pencil test that could discriminate the normal from manic and depressed states, a list of items was obtained which described behavior believed to be characteristic of these states. The test was ad- ministered routinely each week to patients on a research ward concerned with the manic-depressive illness. After five months, test scores were available from 9 patients who had been judged as clinically manic and 15 who had been judged as clinically depressed for various lengths of time.

A paper on authoritarianism and men's reactions to sexuality and kindness in women is presented. Respondents are 64 college males divided into high and low authoritarians. They were made to see a silent movie with two scenes, one sexual and the other, a beautiful woman. The high authoritarian group viewed the star as more sexual than kindly. Further, they split sexuality and emotions in heterosexual behavior to a substantially greater degree than was assessed by low authoritarians. As contrasted with the low authoritarian group, the high authoritarians were likely to form unfavorable impressions of the star in which kindness and sexuality were not combined in one person.

The paper offers some critical comments concerning more general conceptual topics in psychological research in poverty. In passing, observations also will be made on empirical research in the field. In very general terms, the psychology of poverty can be seen as concerned with the relationship between environment and behavior. To put it another way, the psychology of poverty deals with the "interface" between the economic system and the individual: the relationship between a particular array of physical and interpersonal stimuli and psychological structure or overt behavior. Unfortunately, the researchers' theoretical and conceptual tools for analyzing such inter-level problems still are unsophisticated and unsystematic. Most extant psychological theories are woefully inadequate for dealing with the type of problems presented by poverty. A theoretical system bridging the psychological level and the level of the social (and economic) system within a single conceptual framework would seem to be most congruent with the nature of the problems encountered in research in poverty.

The article discusses the research on the decision-making processes in crisis situations. Brief history of the research on interaction processes is presented. The three elements of decision-making in crisis situations are the calculated or anticipated element, the miscalculation or error aspect, and the emotional or affective factor. In developing his revised two-step approach to behavior, O. Hobart Mowrer has introduced fear and hope, as well as other related affects, as mediating variables between the environmental stimulus and behavior of subject.

The article presents information on the relative efficacy of volition and justification in arousing dissonance. Dissonance theory continues to be an important source of insights for an impressive diversity of behavioral areas. Unfortunately, many of these exciting extensions are based on vulnerable foundations, core assumptions and propositions of dissonance theory are still in dispute. Unlike research derived from a systematic theory, dissonance research has not strengthened the basic statements and postulates that generated it, it has not clarified them, it hasn't brought them closer to the data level and it certainly has not been integrated into a neat unified system. Of the several areas in need of clarification, one concerns the conditions for dissonance arousal. It was to this problem, particularly the relative contributions of volition and justification in arousing forced compliance dissonance, that the present experiment and an attempt at formalization were addressed. A principal feature of scholars J.W. Brehm and A.R. Cohen revision of dissonance theory was the authors' insistence that the subjects make a choice, either between choice objects or whether or not to engage in a given behavior.

This article focuses on the result of the student's investigation on trap-door spider. The student noted the description of the spider as follows: it has large mandibles extending out from under the chitonous shield over the dorsal side of the thorax; it has four pairs of true legs and one pair of palpae which look very much like legs; it has eight small eyes on the forward side of the shield; and its abdomen is almost round and narrows to a small projection which joins to the thorax. Further, the spider lives in the ground and rarely comes out. In addition, the student also describes the trap-door spider hole.

The article presents the problem on methodology relative to the study of personality and physical performance. Researchers implemented learning theory to interpret and describe the dynamics of personality and imposed that behavior can be studied by the administration of it. A number of investigators also underline the crisis in methodology on the study of personality. Dependable and valid measurements are needed in understanding the dynamics of personality. The problem lies on what method to use in the research.

A reinforcement analysis of fertility, emphasizing the principles of applied behavior analysis, shifts attention from response-inferred constructs (beliefs, attitudes, wishes, and preferences) to manipulable environmental variables demonstrated to be functionally related to fertility behavior. The analysis suggests a variety of relevant target behaviors to be strengthened by setting up appropriate reinforcement contingencies (incentive systems). Attention is paid to the practical difficulties that are met in any effort to manipulate important reinforcers for large masses of people. It is concluded that a functional analysis offers both practically useful techniques and a powerful research paradigm; the analysis should facilitate efforts by governments and other social agencies to lower fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thirty-two research and development scientists working under high and low autonomy conditions were studied for differences in attitudes and behavior, and their (thirty-two) one-man projects were studied for differences in output levels. High autonomy development scientists were found to have higher levels of work gratification and interpersonal compatibility than their low autonomy counterparts. For research scientists, no such attitudinal and behavioral differences were found between high and low autonomy conditions. Development projects were found to have generally higher levels of outputs than research projects, where outputs were measured in terms of the percent technical problems solved and the project degree of achievement. However, for both research and development projects, the output levels did not vary with the degree of autonomy. Taken together, the detailed results indicate that the work orientation of a project, research or development, can have a significant influence on project outputs. By contrast, the degree of autonomy may only influence certain attitudinal and behavioral dimensions, which may be unrelated to output levels. These results are consistent with the conventional wisdoms, and their implications for management are largely in accord with modern management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on research in animal sociology. Research on the behavior of animals may provide insight into the human condition with regard to either its evolution or its present circumstances. The utility of such insights depends upon there being a relationship between the present human condition and its antecedents in simpler forms of mammals, or on the fact that comparable processes characterize both man and lower forms. Research on the behavior and sociology of animals other than man stems from two opposing perspectives. First, from the direct study of man insights develop which culminate in a paradigm amenable to exploration through the use of animal subjects. Second, on the basis of the knowledge of the evolution and natural history of a particular species one examines more rigorously the processes affecting the species in its natural setting or devises more controlled settings which will permit the process or phenomenon to be expressed in a more precise or exaggerated manner. This latter approach often produces insights not previously recognized on the human level, or which if seriously recognized may be seen in a different relationship to other processes.

This article presents a review of research involving applied behavior analysis in the classroom. A number of studies failed to meet the technological criterion because of inadequate description of procedures or results. However, some of the studies reviewed apparently are technologically adequate because the descriptions of procedures appear to be clear enough for replication by other investigators. In general, all of the studies reviewed appear to relate technological description to basic concepts of the science of behavior. Most studies would also be judged effective by those most directly concerned with the behaviors under investigation. This is ironic, since much of the prior research in the special education settings used academic improvement as the target behavior under investigation.

This article presents a brief evaluation of the research reviewed on teacher personnel. As of the moment, the recent theoretical advances concerning the assessment of teacher behavior and instruction hold tremendous promise for numerous imaginative and creative contributions to a science of education during the next several years. In most of the other problem areas of teacher personnel, it may be expected that large numbers of survey-research studies will continue to be made, although it can be hoped that theoretical considerations will eventually assume some degree of importance. A fundamental weakness of many investigations concerned with legal, economic and related demographic problem has been neglect of what the aims and purposes of American Educations really are. Value-oriented hypotheses formulated with the aid of educational philosophers and historians, psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists could do much to furnish a social framework within which status studies could be made increasingly meaningful.

This article presents a study on the assessment of teacher behavior and instruction. Research on teacher behavior appears to have improved in quality in recent years. A trend, which is undoubtedly related to the improvement in the quality of research, has been an increase in attention given to methodological problems. The criterion problem is no longer neglected as much as it was few years ago; methods for observation and data collection have been refined and improved; and relatively sophisticated design and analysis techniques increasingly have been employed. A general trend has been a lessening of attention to the topic of teacher effectiveness, which often has been elusive in its ramifications because of the incomparability of evaluative criteria. There also has been a significant trend, not yet of great magnitude but certainly gaining momentum, toward concern with the theory of instruction and with models of teacher behavior that may provide organizing principles for research.

This article highlights the research tools of observing and recording group behavior. This review of the literature represents only a sample of the numerous research studies in the area. The authors have tried to limit their study to experimentation which more or less directly involves in its design the exploration and refinement of technics of observing and recording group behavior. It should also be noted that the total literature on this topic is not represented because of the exclusion of studies reported in languages other than English. The authors regret their lack of access to material from this expanding source.

This article discusses the nature of groups and the interrelationships among the various factors which affect the group behavior. The authors have interpreted research broadly and have included in their review reports of responsibly evaluated experiences, case studies, conceptual analyses, and field studies, as well as controlled experiments. The authors have seen change as improvement to the degree that is guided by a methodology which incorporates basic democratic values and the values inherent in scientific method as procedural norms in group life. The writers recognized five approaches to the study and practice of group improvement: adjusting group size to the task, leadership training, membership training, adjusting training efforts to stages of group development, and building a social environment which supports the group in its efforts to improve.

This study was designed to investigate the effects of two stimulus variables (degree of ambiguity of the stimulus and amount of divergence from a given norm) on conformity behavior, and to determine whether conformity is consistent from one situation to another. The results showed a lack of evidence for relationship between conformity and the two stimulus variables. Consistency of behavior in two conformity situations was shown for individuals with high conformity scores but not for individuals with low scores. The results are discussed in terms of discrepancies with previous research, and hypotheses for further investigation are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relation of an abstract theory to empirical research is one of the problems tackled by the metatheory of facets. A distinction is made between the structure of the universe of content of a theory and the statistical structure of the corresponding empirical observations. When there is a clear design for the universe, a special metatheory--like the contiguity principle--can be used to predict the statistical structure: the closer two variables are semantically, the closer they will be statistically. An empirical example is given to illustrate one type of content--intergroup behavior--for which the inference of statistical structure from semantic structure seems justified. Other special metatheories may be necessary for other types of universes of content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article relates the study on the comparison of the effects of observational learning and self-rating on the acquisition and retention of a questioning behavior by elementary science teacher trainees. It is an attempt to compare the relative effects of self-rating versus a film-mediated model. Self-rating condition is a procedure in which the trainee attempts to generate the criterion behavior prior to training and then rates his performance as part of the training, using a rater protocol which identifies correct responses. While, film-mediated model is defined as one in which the learner observes the actual filmed performance of another person who displays the behaviors to be acquired.

The article discusses the study of the social behavior of non-human primates in captivity. According to the research, social relations are found in female-female combinations. It is found solely in the infant-mother relationship characterized by affection on the part of the child and concern on the part of the mother. On the other hand, young-young relationships exhibit a weak social behavior. In a male-young behavior, social relation is characterized by dominance, grooming activity, and leader-follower position. Furthermore, it can be best observed the full range of social conduct in the male-female behavior.

The article presents a study on the analysis of a number of selected problems by Ninth Grade general science students. It was felt that a qualitative case study approach might be more productive than a quantitative one. One of the researchers suggested that pupils might be exposed to the same pre-arranged situations and differences in their behavior as noted in a number of respects. The selected problems were tested, revised and standardized, prior of using in the experiment. The experimental technique that was used in the research, utilized several discrete elements of former techniques, that were supplemented by additional original procedural innovations. Preliminary meetings were used for establishing personal rapport between the investigator and the subjects. A number of differences were indicated while comparing the most analytic protocols with the least successful analytic protocols. The evidence suggests a number of reasonable hypothetical implications that may be supported by subsequent research. The study suggests that the normal ninth graders could analyze many problems unassisted.

This study investigates the possible effects of divorce upon the behavior of adolescent children. A large sample of parents (N = 1,566) completed usable questionnaires; the sample was then divided into the independent variables of family type and social class and the dependent variables of adolescent characteristics and school social relationships. Nonsignificant differences were found for the majority of relationships tested pertaining to the detrimental effects of divorce upon children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employing newly developed observational techniques, the authors recorded the nonverbal and verbal interactions between 6 young mental retardates and their mothers for 36 minutes on each of 2 occasions. Behaviors were analyzed according to their relative status, affection, and involvement components during each 4-second time interval, and patterns were derived by means of contingency analysis. The patterns common to the mentally retarded sample were compared with those derived from a comparison sample of 10 nonretarded 4- and 5-year-olds and their mothers. The patterns of a single retardate dyad were compared with the patterns characteristic of the group to illustrate the effectiveness of the method in highlighting the unique qualities of specific pairs. The study is intended to emphasize methodology primarily and data about the subjects only secondarily. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

4 simulates of child socialization were obtained by varying the extent to which a model verbally instructed and personally exhibited high or low standards of self-reward. Greatest adherence to a stringent norm occurred among children who were taught and who observed the model practice such a norm. Children who were exposed to a, self-indulgent model tended most to violate both stringent and lenient norms and to evidence ambivalent behaviors, while those who were exposed to a child-indulgent model violated the lenient norms least. While percept and precept were both powerfully influential for norm internalization, the latter was clearly the stronger determinant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review of research indicates that the serious inadequacies experienced in school by disadvantaged children, especially Negro boys, have their origins primarily in prenatal damage, father absence, impoverished home environment, and dysfunctional patterns of child rearing. In an integrated classroom, these inadequacies present problems not only to the Negro child but also to his white companion, who is exposed to the contagion of disorganized and antisocial behavior. Finding of social psychological research call for a counterstrategy of active involvement in work with disadvantaged children on the part of middle-class children and adults of both races. The results are seen as benefiting not only the disadvantaged but also the advantaged child by providing him with needed training in actual behavior consistent with the democratic values of human dignity and social responsibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the role of linguistic competence and age in double alternation (DA) behavior, 60 hearing and 60 deaf children, ages 4-9, were tested on acquisition and 4 transfer DA tasks. Minimal success was observed at age 4, followed by marked improvement in acquisition and transfer for the hearing at age 5 and 6, respectively, and for the deaf I year later. At ages 7 and 9, hearing and deaf children performed similarly; both groups showed facility in transferring the DA rule in the presence of irrelevant cues. All-or-none success on the transfer task suggests that the irrelevant stimulus interfered with the initial reapplication of the DA rule. The younger deaf children's slight retardation may be due to linguistic and/or experiential deficiency. The comparable performance of hearing and deaf at the youngest and older ages tested suggests, however, that linguistic development is not a necessary factor for symbolic activity as reflected by DA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from an ongoing research project to determine the prognostic value of the Graham-Rosenblith behavioral assessments of newborns are presented. The 8-month status of 279 Ss (165 examined twice) is shown. The 8-month criteria include ratings of activity level; physical, mental, and social-emotional development; fine and gross motor coordination, and overall diagnosis. Both neonatal scale scores and ratings are related to various of the 8-month criteria. The particular neonatal measure, and whether it was from a first or second assessment, appears to affect both the degree of relation and the criteria to which it is related. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]