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Considerable attention has been given recently to the perplexing problem of the relationship between attitudes and behavior (Ehrlich, 1969; Deutscher, 1969; Warner and DeFleur, 1969; Ajzen et al., 1970; Lastrucci, 1970; Tarter, 1970). Methodological issues have been debated, the lack of congruence between attitudes and behavior has been examined, and a variety of solutions have been offered. We are told, for example, that the continuing poor correlation between measured attitudes and overt behavior requires us to search for the intervening variable or variables which apparently obtain (Ehrlich, 1969); or to employ the "direct observation" of the phenomenon under investigation rather than try to extrapolate from paper-and-pencil tests to behavior (Deutscher, 1969); or to develop theories that, in turn, enable us to find indicators that are more valid than the paper-and-pencil type (Lastrueci, 1970); or to simply admit that attitudes as "presently conceptualized play no real role in behavior" (Tarter, 1970). A number of important aspects of attitude research, however, have been obscured or omitted in these discussions. For the surprising aspect of the situation is not, as has often been implied, the lack of congruence between attitudes and behavior, but the persistent use of research designs that are inappropriate for the complexity of the subject under investigation. Further, it is surprising that researchers have failed to draw out other important implications of their research. That is, the fact that an attitude does not lead directly to a behavior does not justify the assertion that attitudes play no role in behavior, or that attitude research lacks significant implications for social life. The basis for this latter statement will be shown below in a discussion of the values of attitude research. It may be that inadequate research designs, valued for their simplicity rather than their appropriateness, are a manifestation of the "publish or perish" syndrome. In any ease, this paper attempts to outline the problems and the values of attitude research, and to demonstrate thereby that such research is of great significance for the understanding of social phenomena. If that significance seems minimized by those studies that have found poor correlation between attitudes and behavior, the fault lies both in the failure to create research designs that reflect the complexity of the problem and in the tendency to exalt the importance of the proximate causes of overt behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information related to the characteristics of the behavior of agents of law both administrative and judicial who in their work interact directly with members of the community. It is a basic assumption in this paper that agents of sanction exist in all relatively permanent social systems. These agents may either act as privates or a formal organization or not; some may act individually as interacting directly with ordinary members of the social system, either this is an entire community, an association, an industrial organization or a small, informal group. One shall be dealing with the behavior of these agents, bringing into focus the official behavior, which is part of the face-to face interaction between the agents and the other members of the social system concerned. Another basic assumption of the paper is that face-to face disapproving behavior of agents in all social systems have interesting common traits, which with profit may be analyzed comparatively by means of a fairly general theory of sanction behavior. Initially it is an open question whether such a theory can be considered identical to or deduced from a general theory of action.

This paper attempts to show that the myth of the primal horde is of use in that: (1) It helps to account for behavior that is observable at formal meetings, (2) sheds some light on the earlier socialization process and (3) can give some insight into the operation of wider social groupings. This obviously is a formidable task, beyond the scope of any one paper. The author discusses the university seminar of the formal kind where there is a chairman and sometimes a vote of thanks. He hope to show that the myth of the primal horde not merely explains what goes on but can even be said to describe to some extent behavior at such meetings. There is also an attempt to show how the ideas first used in the context of the university seminar can be applied to formal settings that are apparently very different namely those of the military parade and the religious service. Formal behavior, according to the view expressed here, owes its significance to the triumph it celebrates. It must therefore be essentially unstable for where the triumph is too complete there will the need for defensive morality be dissipated.

It is the office of theoretical investigation," said scholar Willard Gibbs, "to give the form in which the results of experiment may be expressed." If he had put "observation" for "experiment," Gibbs would have stated the purpose of the present paper. It is to provide one form in which may be ex- pressed what one knows about social organization. Please note, at the beginning, that more than one form is possible and that, in a limited space, the one suggested here can only be sketched out. The elements of social behavior. The present paper presupposes the direct observation of social behavior. It asks the devastating questions: Looking at the actions of men with eyes innocent of the usual preconceptions what does one see? What a simple classification can one start from in this field of fact? Attempting to answer, it sets up, as components of the conceptual scheme, individuals and three elements or determinants of the behavior of individuals in groups, which will be called operation, sentiment, and interaction.

The article presents information about several books related to sociology. "Diverging Parallels: A Comparison of American and European Thought and Action," edited by A.N.J. den Hollander, is a collection of papers presented at two meetings of the European Association for American Studies, ferreting out likenesses and differences in European and American cultures. Comparisons touch war and diplomacy, education, conceptions of the tragic, romantic and heroic, the idea of evil and thought processes. "Religion's Influence in Contemporary Society: Readings in the Sociology of Religion," edited by Joseph E. Faulkner, is a judicious selection of theoretical and empirical studies arranged under four headings: efforts to delimit the field of study, religion in the church: members, leadership, and organizational structure, the church in society, and religion and social change: urbanization, secularization, and the future. "Black Psyche: the Modal Personality Patterns of Black Americans," edited by Stanley S. Guterman, is a useful collection of materials that suggest the social construction of a modal personality among the U.S. blacks. Contributions, chiefly by sociologists, arc grouped under three headings: the social and historical backdrop, characteristics of the modal personality, and personality influences on behavior.

This paper is focused on the problem of general deterrence as a macro-sociological phenomenon. An attempt has been made to integrate existing literature into a set of testable hypotheses. Three perspectives on general deterrence are examined, including the classical school of criminology and the positions of Durkheim and Sumner. The variables of certainly and severity, type of threatened behavior, latent deterrent functions of legal threats, and normative structure are discussed. It is suggested that compliance rates may he used as an empirical index of general deterrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we review recent efforts to examine attitude-behavior inconsistency as a multivariate research problem. Rather than either assuming a one to one relationship or documenting the contrary; recent researchers have reconceptualized the problem as identifying the conditions which affect the relationship. Although numerous variables have been examined in the recent literature, most of the multivariate research seems to be addressed to three underlying issues: one, the extent to which measurement invalidity may depress the observed attitude-behavior relationship; two, the extent to which other competing but unmeasured attitudes may depress the observed attitude-behavior relationship; and three, the extent to which attitude incongruent social norms depress the observed attitude-behavior relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When a persuasive communication causes a change in belief, will behavior relevant to the belief also change? Past experiments have shown both successes and failures in obtaining such behavior change. The present study offers a reconciliation of these differences in findings by showing that the pattern of belief change with no behavior change occurred only in subjects who, before a communication, committed themselves to a position opposing it. Without this commitment, subjects showed no immunity against the effects of the communication on behavior. Some theoretical implications of this finding are discussed. A condensed version of this paper was read at the American Psychological Association meetings in Los Angeles in 1964. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper shows that the social organization of a therapeutic community is shaped by a particular ideology. The ideology rests on the belief that psychopathology is generated by the social network in which the patient is embedded and may be treated by adding constructive elements to it. The emergent social organization is then compared with the organization of a traditional mental hospital, with particular emphasis on the new behaviour required of people occupying roles in the therapeutic community. On the basis of this analysis, data was collected on patient role behaviour. Results show that improvement of patients is associated with the extent to which they participate in their role. In addition, evidence suggests that movement into the patient role is an orderly process through successive regions. In conclusion, the paper presents the Participation Scale which both measures participation and points to precise targets for therapeutic action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers have long been aware that when they become part of the system they are investigating, their own behavior may a.fleet the behavior they wish to study. Little data has been collected on the effect of respondents on the researcher and the consequences of this on tho research process. The problem is described and analyzed in this paper. We contend that respondents who have special qualities may intrude upon the researcher's role and make it difficult for him to collect necessary data. An illustration is presented from the authors' study of stripteasers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the ubiquitous trends in social behavior is the formation of comprehensive systems of interaction known as communities. Everywhere in the world and throughout man's existence on earth, the formation of communities has been evident, from the primitive tribe to the contemporary nation-state. Among the exciting developments within the more complex communities of mankind, such as cities and nations, is the emergence of subcommunity forms which both complement and contest the arrangements of the larger society. Status communities and ethnic communities of many sorts belong among the contemporary sub-communities. It is instructive to apply this concept of sub-community formation to areas of behavior such as the worlds of art and jazz, when that behavior can be shown to approach closure and completeness with respect to a distinctive way of life. This paper deals with two major tasks: (1) the development of a special theory of the jazz community as an unique form of status community, and (2) a judgment as to the validity of referring to the social world of the jazz musician as a community. It should be mentioned that while this formulation is conceived in terms of the jazz subculture, it also has widespread application elsewhere in the area of social deviance. Since the concept of status group has its roots in the general theory of community, we shall briefly outline that concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our point of departure in this paper has been that an organization can fruit- fully be described as a system of organizational units rather than of individual roles. Whether or not two units in such a system can be described as connected can be determined, for example, by the frequency of communication between them. An account of the units in the system and the relations between them provides one aspect of a description of the organization's structure. Over and above this, the organization's way of functioning as a system can also be described; one of the relevant variables here is intraorganizational strain. Some writers have shown that there is a connection between intraorganizational strain and the organization's degree of goal satisfaction. In this paper we suggest some hypotheses on the origins of intraorganizational strain and have assumed that behavior in a system of organizational units can be explained by an analogy to theories concerning interindividual systems. In conclusion our argument is illustrated by some examples from an empirical study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines disability as a social process. The designation of some forms of exceptional behavior as disability provides a means for the normalization of incapacity in terms of existing role relationships. The requirements for long-term or Permanent exemption from role obligations involve legitimation and adjustment to role maintenance. Behavioral rewards and punishments are not effective for regulating behavior recognized as beyond the control of the individual. Agents of social control may, however, influence or regulate behavior through their ability to provide or withhold alternative sources of gratification. Sanctions may be applied in the process of recognition of inadequate role performance, the attribution of responsibility, or the legitimation of performance failure. The accredited disabled individual is excused from role performance by legitimation and may be provided with alternative behavioral patterns for obtaining income, care, rehabilitation or other services. Legitimation may stipulate the behavioral requirements to consolidate modified expectations into a coherent pattern of adaptation-as normalization of the behavior of the incapacitated individual. This conceptualization suggests a more concentrated focus out the elaboration of behavioral alternatives within existing role relationships rather than the proliferation of specialized role repertoires, [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper suggests to eliminate various difficulties concerning Weber's urban typology by offering some tentative modifications dependent on the needs of the researcher. The dichotomy of urban behavior, the appreciation and use of which is seriously hampered by an exceptionally poor translation, is one of the most important of Weber's typological dichotomies. In addition, due to the unfinished condition of Weber's opus there are several analytical ambiguities which need clarification. Recent outstanding contributions in the sociology of Islam, specifically of the Islamic medieval city, seem to support the validity of Weber's hypotheses. The evidence offered by recent studies of the ancient Mesopotamian as well as the Greco-Roman city is considered in relation to Weber's urban typological dichotomy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term "crisis" has been used in common parlance to designate important, decisive states of things, critical or culmination points, or turning points where the change is either favorable or unfavorable. Sociologists have been using the term in the analysis of group phenomena and more recently with special reference to group situations as they affect the individual personality. in this paper the main developments in the study of crises as group phenomena which bear upon individual behavior will be indicated. Also, studies dealing with phases of personality change where the change is related to group factors will be dealt with. This survey of literature may thus be regarded as preliminary to the development of a view of personality integration in terms of crises in the life of an individual. Sociologist, W.I. Thomas made the first extensive definition of crisis as a social-psychological concept. In an early article he describes crises as "incidents in group-life which interrupt the flow of habit and give rise to changed conditions of consciousness and practice." He describes the process by which shock disturbs the smooth-running of habit and calls for an adjustment on a new level. While his emphasis in this analysis is essentially on the side of the group significance of crisis, the individual aspects are not neglected as witnessed by the use of the terms "habit," "emotion," and "attention."

This paper reviews research data concerned with social and emotional adjustment characteristics of mildly retarded children and adolescents. Contrary to a number of statements appearing in various texts and review articles, little is known concerning the type and frequency of occurrence of behavior adjustment problems among the mildly retarded. In addition, there is no suitable evidence to indicate that the adjustment level of special class children is superior to that of retarded children attending regular grades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a procedural guide for the application of behavioral principles and techniques in open welfare settings. The aim of the guide is to aid the worker in approaching assessment and modification from a behavioral point of view and to organize his activities sequentially and systematically in accordance with that view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of four studies conducted with a population of 505 persons enrolled in 33 sections of speech-skills courses was designed to determine whether persons who scored relatively high and relatively low on attitude-scale measures of dogmatism could be accurately identified on the basis of their communicative behavior by observers of that behavior. The Rokeach Dogmatism Scale and other open-mindedness scales developed by the authors were the paper-and-pencil instruments used. A variety of communicative situations were employed as the basis for observer judgments, including impromptu speeches on controversial topics, written commentaries on the religious issue in the 1960 presidential election, and verbal interaction during an entire school quarter. Communicative behavior was rated by panels of judges or by peers. Results in all studies indicated that it was possible, with a modest but statistically significant degree of assurance, for observers to predict subjects' scores on dogmatism scales from their communicative behavior. In other words, the dogmatism scales used in these studies received some behavioral validation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although communication may take place more easily among people who share similar attributes and have similar attitudes and beliefs, such communication may be in large measure redundant: no new information enters the system, For the diffusion of new information, the existence of some "heterophilous" relationships seems to be a structural prerequisite. The following article offers evidence bearing on this proposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Soziologie is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Soziologie is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Soziologie is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The paper presents a list of articles published in the present issue of this periodical. Some of these are "Absenteeism and Job Turnover as a Consequence of Unfavorable Job Adjustment," by Agne Lundquist, "Absenteeism - A Social Fact in Need of Theory," by Dagfinn As, "Annoyance Reactions to External Environmental Factors in Different Sociological Groups," by Erland Jonsson, "Differential Assimilation and the Perpetuation of Sub-Cultural Goals: A Pilot Study of a Danish-American Village in California," by Henry P. Lundsgaarde, Generalised Behaviour Theory: Behaviour Under Conditions of Outcome Certainty," by Philip G. Herbst, "Official and Unofficial Expectation Concerning the Care of the Sick," by Elina Haavio-Mannila, "Celibacy in Belgium: A Preliminary Study," by Claire Leplae, "The Dannish National Institute of Social Research," by Henning Friis, "Deviance and Passivity in Radio Listener Groups," by Yrjo Littunen, "Rebellion Against the Family. A Discussion of Some Trends in Scandinavian Left-Wing Ideologies," by Harriet Hoiter, "Intelligentsia," by Theodor Geiger.

The paper presents a list of articles published in the present issue of this periodical. Some of these are "Radio Listening in Denmark," by Torben Agersnap, "Juvenile Delinquency in Sweden," by Bjorn O. Ahlander, "Internal and External Criteria of Behavior Regularities," by Erik Allardt, "Community Activity, Leisure Use and Social Structure," by Erik Allardt, "An Analysis of 777 Matrimonial Want Ads," by Helge Anderson, "Lifetime Inter-Occupational Mobility Patterns in Sweden," by C. Arnold Anderson, "Some Notes on Operationism and the Concept of Validity," by Bo Anderson, "Lazarsfeld's Two-Step Hypothesis: Data From Some Swedish Surveys," by Bo Anderson and C.O. Melen, "The Technique of Demography Applied in a Study of Retirement," by Ole Asmussen, "The Structure of the Judicial System and its Function in a Developing Society," by Agnete Weis Bentzon, "The System Approach to the Study of Organizations," by H.M. Blegen, "The Systematic Position of Sociology of Law in Current Scandinavian Research," by Britt-Mari Persson Blegvad, "Distance and Social Relations," by Gunnar Boalt and Cari-Gunnar Janson, "The Sociology of Research," by Gunnar Boalt, "The Passive Citizen," by Angus Campbell, "Reflections on Functionalism," by Gosta Carisson, "Response Intertia and Cycles: A Study

The article discusses the intricacies in conceptualization of sociology. The difficulty for sociology lies in the fact that it often employs everyday words to explain a number of relatively everyday phenomena, and that, in order to do so, it seeks to give the words of everyday language a definite, restricted, and precise meaning. As a matter of fact, not everything is well-ordered within sociology. Sociology has a good deal of knowledge summing up social facts, it has a well developed technique of measurement, but its shortcoming is the absence of coherence in sociological knowledge, a shortcoming which is due to the fact that sociology has not any comprehensive, basic sociological theory. The starting-point for sociological science is the social anthropological observations that people behave habitually in certain situations, and that this habitual behavior varies from community to community in such a way that it is hardly probable that the variations have biological causes. In addition, one might call attention to the common experience that people cooperate and influence each other mutually according to a fixed behavior pattern.

In this article a mathematical model is constructed that appears to translate with tolerable accuracy certain propositions to hold for behavior in human groups. Assumptions the model requires and further propositions that can be deduced from it are examined. In particular, it is seen that it offers an explanation for some of the commonly observed phenomena relating to the stability and dissolution of groups. In the last section it is shown that models of this general class can be applied to a rather wide range of behavioral phenomena beyond those originally examined. It is not implied from this that the psychological mechanisms involved in all these situations are identical. The underlying similarity appears to be of a rather different character. In all of these situations there are present, an external motivational force toward some activity and a secondary "internal" motivational force induced by the activity itself. It is the combined effect of two such motivational forces that produces in each case phenomena of the sort observed in this article. And especially when the relations are not linear and the non-linear must be supposed to be the general case, "persistent" and "gregarious" patterns of behavior can result.

The purpose of this article is to discuss some of the apparently contradictory findings of a recent study of attitudes toward minority groups and to attempt some analysis of the meaning of verbal expressions toward minority groups as they appear to be related to other behavior. The data for this analysis come from a five-month study of the expressed attitudes of people in a rural, mid-western, cornbelt, county-seat community which is designated as Maple County. This community, like many mid-western rural communities, has few members of the traditional minorities. There are less than twenty Jewish residents and fewer than thirty Negro residents in a community of 25,000 people. The discussion of attitude and situation leads us to conclude tentatively that one explanation of the differences between stated and other behavior toward minority groups is to be found in the fact that behavior is a function of the particular situation. That is, the attitude or sentiment toward a minority is only one of the variables in the situation.

The article focuses on delinquency, which refers to the failure of personal and social controls for producing behavior in conformity with the norms of the social system to which legal penalties are attached. Personal control is defined as the ability of an individual to abstain from meeting needs in ways which are in conflict with the norms and rules of the community. On the other hand, social control is defined as the ability of social groups to make norms or rules effective. It is stated that delinquency results when there is an absence of norms and rules governing behavior in conformity with the norms of the social system to which legal penalties are attached.

An exploration of die applicability of principles of group dynamics to counseling groups. Principles developed out of research on conforming behavior in small groups are used to interpret some of the common phenomena occurring in counseling groups as illustrative of the significance of group dynamics for the counselor and psychotherapist. The need is stressed for greater coordination and communication between the two disciplines- counseling and group dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sociological models have not generally guided the analysis of race and ethnic relations. This paper constitutes an attempt to alter this situation by assessing the relevance of the race cycle, consensus, inter- dependence and conflict frameworks for the construction of an explanation of the emergence, persistence, adaptation, and change of systems of ethnic differentiation. Although each of the frameworks has relevance for more than one of these empirical problems, it is concluded that the race cycle is most useful in explaining the emergence of ethnic differentiation, consensus is most useful vis-à-vis persistence, interdependence vis-à-vis adaptation, and conflict vis-à-vis change. A number of explanatory propositions are stated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts a conceptual clarification of several issues surrounding sociological and social psychological analyses of deviant behavior. A basic distinction is made between individuals whose initial socialization is in terms of conventional norms and values, and those whose early socialization is based on deviant norms and values. The implications of this distinction for the manner in which initial deviant behavior occurs, the rewards and costs the deviant experiences, and the effects of labeling upon him, are drawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is addressed primarily to the consideration of an old ghost in new sheets—what constitutes the sphere of relevant phenomena for the discipline of sociology. The current research and publications on factors in mate selection provide one of several growing collections of data which pose a central question in this regard. The fascination of the biological orientation for sociological explanations is well known. It is an attractive explanation for man's behavior because man is after all a biological organism and what he does must be understood at least in part on this basis. It is the social phenomenon of mate selection which will be utilized here to demonstrate the departure of certain sociologists from analysis of social reality in their search for explanations of social behavior. Personality needs constitute another important factor in mate selection. This refers to needs which the person wants fulfilled and at the same time are most likely to be satisfied within the context of married life. The person chosen as a marriage partner is viewed as the one who, in the estimation of the chooser, is most likely to satisfy these needs.

The article focuses on Negro class structure and the technicways. One of the promising developments in modern sociology is the conceptualization of analytically distinctive behavior patterns in the "technicways." These have been characterized as socially disruptive patterns which are important in understanding and detailing the process of social change. However, the generalized mechanisms of social change are not yet comprehended by sociological theory and consequently the relation between social change and the technicways remains disturbingly vague and accountably tenuous. It seems expedient, therefore, to select one critical aspect of social change - class structuring in this case - in an attempt to test the validity of this relationship and, if possible, to clarify the processes through which it is manifested. Before presenting the hypotheses which form the bases of this paper and an illustrative application to Negro class structure in the United States, the conceptual elements to be employed in their exposition has been defined. The technicways refer to the behavior patterns, usages, and associated patterns of thought which arise as transitional adjustments to developments in science and technology.

This article focuses on sociological correlates of student leadership in Hawaii. As the various ethnic groups have immigrated to the United States and have eventually become absorbed into the general population, behaviorial changes from generation to generation have been noted. In Hawaii the process of assimilation has been discussed by numerous writers. The present authors took advantage of a survey of attitudes towards campus activities at the University of Hawaii to investigate the relationship of sociological and psychological variables to student participation and leadership. In particular this paper is concerned with the relationship of leadership at the University of Hawaii to variation in sex, religion, and race. A sample of 150 sophomores, juniors and seniors in full time attendance at the University of Hawaii provide the survey group, being chosen from a universe of approximately 3,000. 0f the 150 students initially chosen through use of a table of random numbers, 147 were eventually surveyed regarding attitudes, information, biographical data and participation and leadership in activities.

This paper proposes a relationship between the structure of education and the major institutional forms of a society. It posits that in a society characterized by a predominance of bureaucratic organizations the criteria for health and maturity in a popular psychological perspective (neo-Freudian ideology) may correspond with the demands of bureaucracy; that the practices of one nursery school in implementing this ideology create bureaucracy-like experiences for the children in it; and that the behavior of the children in the school reflects their experience of a phenomenologically bureaucratic world. These propositions are based on participant-observation in an American nursery school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large-scale review and integration of existing theory and research may be considered a type of research in its own right one using a characteristic set, of research techniques. This paper offers an analysis of the methodology and the importance of reviews and integrations by discussing the procedures, problems, functions, and values of this type of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper sets forth a model of the school as a social organization within an institutional framework and relates its organizational characteristics to its age- grade structure. Employing Etzioni's concepts of organizational goal and compliance, three hypotheses relating goals, student compliance, and teacher compliance to organizational age-grade structure are developed. A preliminary test of the teacher compliance hypotheses then is offered using a secondary analysis of data gathered in 1960-61 from a national sample of urban documentary, junior, and senior high schools. The responses of 3039 teachers to 14 questionnaire items about the behavior of their principals are examined. The results are supportive of the hypothesis that a strong normative teacher compliance structure in the lower age-grade levels gradually becomes increasingly utilitarian at the higher age-grade levels. Implications of both reasoning and data for the further analysis of schools as social organizations within an institutional framework are considered, with particular emphasis upon how different social class contexts of schools might place conditions upon the relationship of goals and compliance to their age-grade structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arguments are presented for the reconsideration of models which guide planning behavior and structure planning organizations. Hierarchical organizations are contrasted with reticular organizations and the latter are presented as necessary for effective citizen participation. Legitimacy is presented as a fundamental basis of justifying planning action and historical shifts in forms of legitimacy arc noted. Participation, as a form of legitimacy, and several aspects of participatory planning are discussed in terms of recent systems thinking. It is argued that participatory planning increases the effectiveness and adaptivity of the planning process and contributes adaptivity and stability to the societal system. Further, it is argued that citizen participation is an essential element in making the planning process a learning system. This leads to a strengthening of the definition and role of communities in the urban system, and to an unexpected requirement of planners who would adopt a participatory planning process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents author's comment in response to the review essay on the book "Behavioral Sociology: The Experimental Analysis of Social Processes," published in the December 1970 issue of "American Sociological Reviews." The author argues against the reinforced behavior and the nonreinforced or punished behavior as mentioned by the reviewer. Also, he asserts that the reviewer's claim that no consideration is given to all the vaunted scientific method, questions regarding the demand characteristics of the situation, experimenter effects, or what the subject really thinks about in the situation is wrong. Furthermore, the authors points out the error on the non-experimental evidence which the reviewer claims that it comes from so-called "field studies" in the treatment and control of retarded and emotionally disturbed children. The author also fights back on the "social process" as mentioned in the subtitle of the book. Finally, he replies to the issue of "extreme repugnance" as mentioned by the reviewer.

The experimental model has severe limitations that often are ignored by experimenters. The limitations are likely to account for the low level of external validity of experiments. Placing the model in the context of requirements for measurement emphasizes the limitations and suggests alternatives for improvements in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of the role of technical data in the formation of ethical norms and ethical judgments actually grows out of a sense of frustration and a sense of excitement that is engendered by contemporary Christian ethical literature. The frustration comes from the fact that sociological data, para-sociological assumptions, theological statements and confessional preferences are frequently juxtaposed indiscriminately, with little awareness of the shifts in ethical method that are required by such trend. The excitement comes from a sense of freshness and an openness to the technical data of the social sciences that is apparently signaling an important shift in the discipline, now that the crest of Barthian and existentialist theology is beginning to ebb and the possibilities of making some proximate judgments in the midst of human relativity is again seen as legitimate. It has been true for some time, of course, that technical data have been used in the making of ethical judgments. In the compilation of statistics on moral behavior by the nineteenth century Lutheran moralist A. von Oettingen, in some branches of the Social Gospel movement, in the growth of courses in "Applied Christianity" during the thirties.

This article discusses the phenomena of inter-group stereotyping. It may be defined as the tendency to attribute generalized and simplified characteristics to groups of people in the form of verbal labels. Going a step further, one may profitably regard stereotypes as a special kind of concept-system, representing meanings aroused by social stimuli or symbols. The operation of stereotyping is easily observed and quite familiar on the level of everyday life. The existence of stereotypes is patent enough, but the processes involved and their effects on behavior are extraordinarily complex. Stereotyping is a two-way process. Members of groups not only stereotype others but are also stereotyped by them; furthermore, each group has a stereotype of itself. A considerable number of investigations have appeared on the phenomena of stereotyping, but most of them have been concerned with the content of stereotypes. A researcher has suggested that stereotypes vary in four "dimensions"; namely, in uniformity, direction, intensity and quality.

Copyright of Journal of Social Psychology is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The study deals with the consequences of delayed response, or inertia, on the level of macro-sociological variables. In general the behavior subjected to analysis can be studied also on the level of individual variability and the question can be raised why some individuals react one way and others in another way, or not at all. This will be referred to as micro-analysis, while macro-analysis, as here understood, treats the average behaviour characteristic of the society, varying from one society to another, or in time. In the case of a response which is "quantal" on the individual level the macrovariable is a proportion and it is this situation many of the subsequent examples relate to. A simple model will be developed in which macro-response is regarded as occurring in time and as needing a certain span to time to run its full course. In the first part, the model will be assumed and its consequences demostrated, particularly the dampening of response variation and the creation of a seemingly cyclical pattern of change.

One of the sociologists standard procedures is to introduce controls for background or so-called "demographic" variables. When one finds a relationship between two attitudes or perhaps an attitude and some type of behavior, he will often control for factors such as age race, sex, education, religion, or occupation of father. Controls may be introduced more or less routinely as though the rationale for their use were clearly understood or obviously apparent. The purpose of this article is to examine the nature of this rationale. Few sociologists admit to a direct theoretical interest in "demographic" variables per se. Usually, if not always, a background factor such as sex, religious denomination, occupation of father, or type of home community is employed merely as a convenient indicator of some other variable which may be very imprecisely defined. The rationale in comparing males and females, whites and Negroes, or Protestants and Catholics is usually that each of the categories will, on the avenge, have been exposed to different socialization experiences of one kind or another.

This article focuses on ideal and typical social norms. In view of the strategic position occupied by the concept of social norms in sociological theory it behooves sociologists to elaborate and refine it beyond its present formulation. Social norms are viewed as standards for behavior, which is to say they represent a base or criterion for judging the appropriateness or acceptability of actions. It should be apparent, however, that there are realty two sets of norms lo guide behavior. One standard is the ideal, what one ought to do. The ideal norm stipulates what the morally correct form of behavior would be for a given situation. Almost invariabIy however, actual behavior does not coincide with what would be socially preferable; one would be bard pressed to cite a social norm which is never violated. The distinction between these two types of norms can also be illuminated by reference to the socialization process. The acquisition of ideal norms seems to be primarily a matter of verbal transmission, whereas typical nouns are more likely to be acquired as a result of observation of overt behavior.

The article focuses on the impact on research of different concepts of role in sociology. Work of social scientists on role analysis give a discussion of role theory that serves admirably as background for the present article. Role may refer to normatively expected behavior, the behavior that a person in a given position should engage in. So conceived, role is necessarily a conceptual or definitional thing, and is distinguished from role behavior which refers to the actual behavior of a person fulfilling a role. Role is sometimes defined as the behavior predicted for a person in a given position, but in this case no clear distinction is maintained between the terms role and role behavior. When role is defined as normatively expected behavior, a problem arises of distinguishing it from status, for the latter also implies expectations. Nevertheless, semantic justification may be offered for retaining both terms. It has been suggested that the term "status" be reserved for use in designating degrees of prestige, and "position" be employed for indicating location among a set of interrelated roles.