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This paper demonstrates how the proper use of the relaxation process may: (1) make the counseling experience more fruitful and pleasant; (2) facilitate the maximum functioning of the client; (3) reduce physical and emotional tensions; (4) create a physical condition more conducive to attacking other problems; (5) clear the mind for clear and logical thinking; and (6) promote productive and creative efforts by which worthwhile achievements may be realized. The other discusses the goals and possible outcomes of counseling and the place of relaxation in this process. Much of the paper is given over to the principles and actual mechanics involved in relaxation training. Emphasis is on relaxation as a tool for building self-confidence in the client, as well as on behavior changes. A brief consideration of the limitations of the relaxation process concludes the paper. (Author/TL)

The paper presents a model of counseling outcomes which distinguishes between within-interview change and extra-interview change in order to identify and study the counselor behaviors which constitute strategies or techniques. The author feels that research must: 1.) assess the relative productivity of these behaviors within-strategies in terms of client change within the counseling setting and 2.) clarify how these within-interview outcomes may be used by the client as tools or strategies with which he can operate upon his environment. Another salient feature of this research is its implication for the training of counselors, bringing into focus the relationship between the counselor's behavior and the outcomes of counseling. The author stresses the continuing challenge of relating specific counselor behaviors to the client's improved functioning in his environment. References are included. (Author/SES)

The author undertakes a re-examination of the vocational counselor's traditional roles and considers some dramatic changes. The increasing societal emphasis on early childhood provokes questions about the current absence of such a focus in guidance training institutions. The paper stresses intervention at this primary level. New counselor roles such as institutional liaison and child advocate are considered. The burden is viewed as ultimately falling on counselor training institutions to divest themselves of their ossified interests in preparing counselors for traditional roles. The author concludes with the suggestion that competent human behavioral specialists be developed through a core program in which all contributing professions would share. (TL)

Five models for the behavior change process at both the individual and the systemic level are proposed. The author sees them as comprising an integrated or eclectic approach, which he defines as using that which is most appropriate for achieving goals. The five models, which are central in the author's program of counselor education, are: (1) the client-centered relationship model (Rogers); (2) the behavioral model, which is based on learning theory; (3) the social psychological model (Adler); (4) the reality model (Glasser); and (5) the rational-cognitive model (Ellis). The particular strengths and appropriateness of each model are discussed. The paper concludes by acknowledging that no one technique or model is adequate by itself; whatever seems appropriate and workable from any one of the models should be used. (TL)

This paper contrasts the behavioral and non-behavioral approaches to counseling, particularly the interview process. A brief discussion of basic theoretical assumptions is included. In behavioral counseling, the relationship can best be characterized as collaboration, and unlike non-behaviorists, the behavioral counselor can assist his client to acquire the needed skills necessary to function more adaptively in his surroundings. In the assessment process, behavioral counseling, in contrast to traditional techniques, is data oriented in that it provides a baseline against which both client and counselor can evaluate the effectiveness of their efforts toward change and can decide on the methods which work best. Behaviorists then direct their attention to the antecedent events in the environment which may have served as cues for the problem behavior. Based on this analysis, the client and counselor can plan specific changes in the environment. The final step is the evaluation of the therapeutic effectiveness by observing changes in the rate of the target behavior. (KJ)

Based on the assumption that inferential statistics can make the operant conditioner more sensitive to possible significant relationships, regressions models were developed to test the statistical significance between slopes and Y intercepts of the experimental and control group subjects. These results were then compared to the traditional operant conditioning eyeball technique analysis. (Author)

Three Internal-External (I-E) locus of control counseling techniques were used in regular counseling sessions to determine whether these techniques would result in a control expectancy shift from external to internal. Twenty-seven Ss were counseled in 4 groups for five weeks, twice each week in groups, and once each week individually by 4 counselors. Seventeen Sc participated in non-counseling sessions. Results showed that 2 groups who were led by counselors judged to have used IE counseling techniques did experience a significant control expectancy shift as opposed to 2 non-IE counseled groups (t = 2.4, p less than .02) and all non counseled groups (2.5, p less than .02). There was no significant difference between non counseled and non-IE counseled (t = .11, p greater than .05). Counselors varied in their I-E technique preference but agreed that techniques are useful counseling tools. (Author)

This paper presents materials from the 29th Rutgers Guidance Conference on behavioral outcomes for career education, including the keynote address by Norman Gysbers on the concept of life career development as a new point of departure for improving and extending comprehensive career guidance programs. Three broad areas of knowledge, understanding, and skills are identified to serve as a base for new career guidance programs: (1) self-knowledge and interpersonal skills, (2) career planning knowledge and skills, and (3) knowledge of the work and leisure worlds. Goals are stated in terms of student outcomes rather than as program outcomes, and a number of performance objectives and activities are developed for each goal. Panelists, whose reactions to the keynote address are included, have all been involved in operating programs where an important activity has been the translation, examination, and evaluation of their own efforts to use behavioral outcomes as a measure of their effectiveness. (Author/SES)

A game designed to teach some of the skills used in behavior modification with slow learners was evaluated. The game, called "Modifying," was developed to increase the range of experience for students preparing to be special education teachers. A randomized, posttest-only design was employed. The design incorporated three treatments: conventional lecture, game and short discussion, and game with longer discussion and replay of the game. Two measures of the treatments' effects were utilized: a situational test of a special education classroom and a performance test which required each subject to teach a special education child a simple paper construction task using behavior modification. A recording was made of the number of positive reinforcements the subjects used in teaching the child. Preliminary results of the study suggest that there is a main treatment effect in favor of the game-discussion-game treatment level. (Author/JY)

Counselors at the Research and Guidance Laboratory for Superior Students at the University of Wisconsin prepared specific suggestions designed to assist participating high school students in their educational development. One hundred and eight academically superior students were assigned to three experimental groups and one control group. Following the usual program activities, each of the three experimental groups were offered an additional brief contact procedure to encourage them to initiate action on counselor suggestions: (1) reinforcement counseling; (2) written communications to subjects; and (3) written communications to subjects' parents. Results indicate that the counseling treatment was significantly more effective in promoting students' actions on suggestions than were the written communications. Females did significantly more initiating than males. Speculation about the results concludes the report. (TL)

Many counselors feel they are inadequately trained to work effectively with the analysis and remediation of pupil learning and behavior problems. Therefore, the present study was aimed at three tasks: (1) identification of pupil learning, behavior, and adjustment problems for which teachers feel they need new remedial strategies; (2) the presentation of a rationale for utilizing behavior change strategies; and (3) testing of three strategies for working with representative teacher identified problems. Through a questionnaire, pupil problems were identified and categorized into three basic categories: (1) misbehavior, (2) learning, and (3) personal-social. Strategies for working with representative sample problems were developed from research and theory. Change in behavior will most likely occur when the distance between what the child wants and what he has is greatest. Steps are given for the counselor to follow in consulting with teachers. Strategies for treatment are presented in three case studies. The remediation techniques employed in the cases were designed to extinguish "undesirable" behaviors and replace them with productive modes of functioning. (KJ/Author)

This paper investigates two types of practicum experiences: (1) experiential introspective; and (2) didactic-behavioristic. The hypotheses tested include: (1) there are no differences between mean responses of the counselees in the two above groups; (2) there are no differences between mean responses of the counselors in the two groups; (3) there are no differences between mean responses of group one (experiential-introspective) counselors and their counselees, or between group two (didactic-behavioristic) counselors and their counselees. The instruments used were the Therapy Session Report, Form P and Form T. Results include: (1) both counselors and counselees in group one differed in their perceptions of the counseling session from group two; (2) group one counselors differed from their clients in some perceptions of the counseling sessions; (3) group two counselors differed from their clients in some perceptions of the counseling sessions. Analysis of the data indicated the rejection of all four null hypotheses. (Author/KJ)

The use of reinforcement as a treatment technique by a counselor is demonstrated. Its purpose is two-fold: (1) to evaluate the effectiveness of the technique; and (2) to actively involve the participant in the demonstration. A pre-test involves presentation of a hypothetical situation from which the participant is to select: (1) problem behaviors; (2) antecedents of behaviors; (3) consequences; and (4) strategies for rectifying the situation. One then is invited to observe a role play of a typical initial interview by a behavioral counselor. He is to compare his observations on the four situational aspects with those of the counselors. A post-test is then presented to ascertain the effectiveness of the approach. A second section on systematic desensitization (piecemeal breaking down of maladaptive anxious behavior) for school counselors follows the same format as the initial section. The authors contend that the use of reinforcement and systematic desensitization would be more realistic if demonstrated instead of described and would be more meaningful if the counselors were involved. (TL)

The main topic of this paper is how the behavioral approach to counseling fulfills the requirements of an effective helping relationship. The role of the counselor is first considered, should the counselor exert influence over clients? In any interpersonal relationship, people influence and control one another, counseling relationships are no different. The basic issues of counseling are: (1) a counselor's right to intervene in the life of another; (2) the counselor's responsibility to do all he can to accomplish the goals set up for his client; and (3) the counselor's right to a role which is appropriate for each client, rather than being the same for all clients. The necessity of engaging in action-oriented activities to influence client's behavior so that the client resolves his problems is the underlying rationale for behavioral counseling. The basic tenent is that behavior is a function of its antecedents. The counselor helps the client change the way in which he responds to certain situations which elicit his unwanted behavior so that the client may function in the effective manner he desires. (KJ)

Behavior therapists view psychopathology differently from dynamically oriented therapists, in that behaviorists are taught to regard symptoms primarily as sets of learned behaviors rather than cues to underlying psychological disorders. Even though there is a split among behaviorists as to which procedure is best to follow, there are some special strengths of the behavioral viewpoint: (1) because it is a new method, it generates enthusiasm, hope and faith from patients; (2) because it paints a consistent picture of the etiology of all psychopathology, behaviorism obviates the need for wrestling with conflicting dynamic or biological views of the case; (3) diagnosis is linked with treatment, and achievement of goals and depends on a problem solving diagnostic laboratory; and (4) because of this laboratory method, behaviorists are very receptive to research. Limitations of behaviorism include: (1) one procedure cannot cure all ailments; and (2) behavioral procedures have not been useful in treatment of schizophrenia or other functional psychoses. (KJ)

The document is concerned with women's failure to plan some reasonable occupational program, the lack of which places increasing pressure on the counselor and the female counselee. The report discusses some research on femininity: (1) how women adjust to the social norm; (2) how women describe the ideal woman; and (3) how women see themselves (self image). Age groups from 25 to 54 are considered and differences between them are noted. Also included are seven suggestions to be applied by the counselor: (1) realize that achievement outside the home is not masculinizing; (2) treat the female counselee with respect; (3) forget the feminine stereotype and learn her entire family background; (4) recognize the presence of guilt feelings; (5) be aware that there is aggression in the feminine personality; (6) broaden the perception of suitable goals for women; and (7) encourage women themselves to decide what needs changing in their behavior. (Author/MC)

SOME OF THE PROBLEMS IN ARRIVING AT A TRAINING PROGRAM FOR BEHAVIOR THERAPISTS STEM FROM THE DIFFICULTY IN DEFINING BEHAVIOR THERAPY. BASICALLY, HOWEVER, A PERSON'S DIFFICULTY IS UNDERSTOOD AS HIS BEHAVIOR IN REACTION TO SITUATIONS. THIS BEHAVIOR RESULTS FROM A CURRENT OR PREVIOUS REINFORCER. NORMAL AND ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR DIFFER ONLY IN THE TERMS OF THE EVALUATIVE CRITERIA USED. THE BEHAVIOR THERAPY TRAINEE MUST LEARN A NEW VIEW OF PEOPLE. HE MUST VIEW THE TARGET BEHAVIOR AS A NORMAL, APPROPRIATE, AND REASONABLE OUTCOME OF PAST AND CONTINUING EXPERIENCE. THE TRAINEE MUST EXAMINE PEOPLE AND THEIR ACTIONS, THE CONDITIONS ELICITING THEIR BEHAVIORS, AND ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIORS. SINCE THE TARGET BEHAVIOR IS CONSIDERED A RESULT OF LEARNING, IT MUST BE DEALT WITH IN A SITUATION AS CLOSE AS POSSIBLE TO THE TARGET. THIS MAY REQUIRE PARENTS, TEACHERS, OR PEERS AS REINFORCERS. THE WIDE VARIETY OF PEOPLE INVOLVED IN BEHAVIOR THERAPY HAS TWO MAJOR IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PSYCHOLOGIST. HE MUST TEACH PRINCIPLES AND PROGRAM AN ENVIRONMENT. NO INVARIANT SET OF BEHAVIORS CAN BE USED. THE BEHAVIOR THERAPIST MUST BE TRAINED TO TAKE AN ACTIVE ROLE, TO MAKE VALUE JUDGMENTS, AND TO EXAMINE HIMSELF. THIS PAPER WAS PRESENTED AT THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION CONVENTION, WASHINGTON, D.C., SEPTEMBER 1, 1967. (SK)

THE IMPORTANCE OF ASSISTING STUDENTS IN THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS IS EXPLORED. COUNSELORS ASSIST STUDENTS IN LEARNING HOW TO MAKE DECISIONS. A DECISION SHOULD BE EVALUATED IN TERMS OF THE PROCESS USED TO ARRIVE AT IT RATHER THAN IN TERMS OF THE RESULTING CHOICE. KNOWLEDGE OF ALTERNATIVES, POSSIBLE OUTCOMES, AND THE PROBABILITY FOR SUCCESS OF EACH OF THE OUTCOMES ARE NECESSARY FOR SCIENTIFIC DECISION-MAKING. NEW COUNSELING PROCEDURES HAVE BEEN PROPOSED AND EXPERIMENTALLY STUDIED TO PROMOTE THIS TYPE OF BEHAVIOR. MODEL-REINFORCEMENT AND REINFORCEMENT COUNSELING HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO BE EFFECTIVE IN MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO SEEK AND USE INFORMATION PRIOR TO MAKING DECISIONS. RESULTS OF SEVERAL RESEARCH STUDIES UTILIZING SUCH PROCEDURES ARE PRESENTED. OTHER STUDIES USING COUNSELING TECHNIQUES DERIVED FROM RESEARCH IN LEARNING HAVE ALSO PROVED EFFECTIVE IN PROMOTING GOOD DECISION-MAKING PROCEDURES. THESE TECHNIQUES INCLUDE VERBAL REINFORCEMENT, USE OF PROGRAMMED BOOKLETS, AND PARTICIPATION IN SIMULATED EXPERIENCES. THESE TECHNIQUES HAVE ALSO HELPED STUDENTS GAIN SKILLS NECESSARY FOR MEETING DECISION-MAKING PROBLEMS. THIS PAPER WAS PRESENTED AT THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION CONVENTION, WASHINGTON, D.C., SEPTEMBER, 1967. (SK)

The original paper was prepared by Carlyle H. Folkins, Karen Lawson, Edward M. Opton, Jr., and Richard S. Lazarus in 1968. Their reply to Davison's critique is included.

Study supported in part by the California Foundation for Medical Research. Papers relating to this study are AA 501 856 and AA 501 857.

This paper describes a procedural guide for the application of behavioral principles and techniques in open welfare settings. The aim of the guide is to aid the worker in approaching assessment and modification from a behavioral point of view and to organize his activities sequentially and systematically in accordance with that view. (Author)

Discusses the function of ambiguity" (an attitude of hatibual uncertainty, vagueness, and imprecision of communication) in crisis situations involving adult-child interchanges. Makes suggestions for medical and psychiatric counselors. Paper was presented at the meeting of the American Association of Psychiatric Clinics for Children, Boston, Mass., November, 1969. (WY)

The purpose of this paper is to examine, from a sociopsychological standpoint, some of the elements which account for the success of behavior therapy and to comment on the meaning of its emergence in modern society. Behavior therapy is seen as an indicator and consequence of major cultural trends. (Author/CG)

This paper discusses some arguments purporting to show that behavior therapy is an inherently limited, partial approach to mental disorder in human beings. Obvious limitations to scientific theories are also outlined. (Author)

This paper is concerned with...the identification of candidates for the Diagnostic Learning Center and with the success of the services rendered the child to eliminate inhibitive influences of learning. (Author)

The primary purpose of this paper is to apply the accountability concept to the field of counseling. (Author)

This article relates systematic causality to applications in behavior theory, counseling practice, and counseling research. The paper was presented at the American Educational Research Association Convention, Chicago, 1972. (JC)