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The article reports on the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Policy Statements approved by the Delegate Assembly in the U.S. The Organization and Administration for Special Education policy statement is prepared by the CEC Policies Commission and is originally derived from a paper by Ernest Willenberg. Such statements suggest some of the major principles on which a special education administrative organization should be based. Special education shares with regular education the basic responsibility of public educational systems to fulfill their right to education for every child.

The article focuses on the proposed policy statements by the Council for Exceptional Children on the organization and administration of special education in the U.S. It informs that the statements were developed from a paper by Ernest Willenberg, in collaboration with Evelyn Deno, Paul Voelker, Paul Mckinnon and Willard Abraham. The statements were first published in the February 1971 issue of "Exceptional Children." The article outlines the major policies on which a special education administrative organization should be based.

This paper reviews several programs for children with special needs, from historical perspectives, current involvements, and one particular orientation, called the ‘child development model.’ With respect to programs based on the child development model, it is recommended that each state consider planning toward the eventual organization of a child development agency, responsible for all children with special needs, irrespective of their characteristics, educational attainments, and prognoses. Further, it is recommended that, to the degree programs encourage and support the maintenance of children in community environments, they should be rewarded in both specific and general ways; and for purposes of better guaranteeing human rights and due process, citizen advisory and other advocacy groups should be organized throughout a state and given such support as would be needed to make these groups active and responsive grass roots partners in policy and decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The passage of legislation concerning the development of adequate educational programs for the gifted and handicapped children has been supported by The Council for Exceptional Children acting in unison with various organizations. This paper presents (a) a brief review of CEC's past efforts to improve federal legislative provisions; (b) organizational policy statements that were adopted in order to increase CEC's effectiveness as an instrument for the encouragement of legislation for handicapped children; and (c) a look into the future of special education based on current trends. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New state laws pertaining to "accountability" in education in crease the importance of good program evaluation. A critical review of the literature is presented that distinguishes formal evaluation of a learning disabilities program as a whole from diagnostic evaluation of an individual child. The value of total program evaluation for making more scientifically-based decisions in future programming is demonstrated. Formal program evaluation is viewed on three levels: (1) evaluation of specific programs run by a local educational agency; (2) evaluation of programs across a whole state; and (3) evaluation of programs nation-wide. Several general models for program evaluation are described and criticized. The view is advanced that fewer models should be built in the future and that more agencies should be formed which offer help in devising custom-made program evaluation schemes for ongoing learning disabilities programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a number of research ideas that promise to expand the understanding of problems related to the language classroom. It may help to fulfill the need for new ideas, new research, new applications: needs that have been repeatedly stressed by all the papers offering programmatic suggestions as guidance for the future direction of interests and energies by scholars aspiring to make a significant contribution to the overall effectiveness of the profession. The author highlights a new law in the State of Massachusetts which requires every school district with twenty or more children with limited English-speaking ability to provide a minimum of three years of transitional bilingual education. The author does not advocate a deliberate, go-slow approach to educational problems because of lack of faith in the aims and goals that new or remedial programs are designed to achieve. The law does not specify where the teachers are to come from or how they will be trained, how the support of administrators will be assured and how the possible negative effects of separate classrooms will be countered.

The article focuses on how the Education Act of 1902 was implemented by the Board of Education in England. During the 19th century the bias of slowly developing post-elementary education had been towards the scientific and technical sides. It was in fact made clear that the secondary education fostered by the new authorities was to aim at the culture of the public schools and older grammar schools rather than the scientific and technical education associated with the higher grade schools of the school boards. The regulations and the covering memorandum which was published with them indicated that the secondary school was to have a status distinct from elementary schools. The Board's approval was necessary for the scheme of its governing body, including the plan of its relations with the authority itself. The new school was in fact to have a measure of independence of the authority. The Science and Art Department had checked extreme specialization in Schools of Science by requiring that some time should be devoted to literary subjects.

The article reports on the criticism thrown by the community to the little school store that had been long operating since 1932 as accounted by the headline in the local newspaper in the U.S. This public relations (PR) problem developed because the former administration never explained as to why or how the store was operated for the last 20 years. And in order for the new school administration to handle the growing PR conflict, they circulated a questionnaire explaining the store's importance and polling the public's opinion on the store's termination. Surprisingly, 12 percent of the respondents voted for no. Meanwhile, a committee of teachers were accounting the store's monthly sales and income before community and business clubs.

Two recent amendments to The National Defense Education Act of 1958 enlarged its scope to include the education of exceptional children. The new Title XI allows colleges and universities to plan institutes in critical subjects for teachers of exceptional children. The amended Title ill provides for instructional materials to be used for all school children, including the exceptional. This paper briefly presents the Titles' provisions and indicates those who would be eligible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents an update on a higher education bill in the U.S. as of May 1972. Although higher education legislation continues to be delayed in a House-Senate conference committee by such thorny issues as public school bussing, general aid to institutions, and the program of student support, several important decisions have been reached. Two of these concern the administration's proposed National Foundation for Higher Education (NFHE) and the National Institute of Education (NIE). Put most briefly, the former is out and the former is in. The NFHE was designed in part as a response to those who argued that higher education was receiving short shrift of all sorts and was being criticized for lack of innovation at the same time that support for innovation was denied. Actually the proposal drew relatively little attention and more yawns than passion on either side. This was partly because many felt it to be an organizational exercise whose real merit depended entirely on its undetermined staffing and budget. As it is, the House-Senate conference sought to accomplish some of the same results without the bureaucratic fanfare. Thus, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) was authorized to hire up to five top-level administrators and to establish an advisory commission to promote higher education innovation.

The article describes the implications of technology and human interaction on teacher preparation. The author accounted the examples of educational innovations cited by the Educational Policies Center at the Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York. According to the Center, educational innovations have caused obsoleteness to half of the knowledge acquired by a person when he reaches middle age, have led the existence of new various items in the supermarket which did not occur ten years ago and have provided half of the employees with jobs to earn a living through the appearance of new industries which did not exist many years ago.

A study of recent court decisions indicates that courts tend to decide cases in education with apparently little or no citation in their opinions of the findings of research studies in the fields of education, economics, psychology, sociology, etc. This may be unique since the courts seem to be more liberal in other areas of the law where inputs from other disciplines (e.g. medicine) are cited and do find their way into the decisions of cases. The implications of this for educational policy formation and educational research need to be more thoroughly examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision-makers and policy-makers in education face some options to which systems analysts and economists might make contributions. Some of these options are identified within three clusters: how much to invest in education, how to allocate that investment, and what technology and organization to use. Tuition and fees, scholarships, admissions and retention requirements, and counseling policies are viewed as policy settings that can more explicitly encourage educational flows appropriate to development objectives. Education is shown to be a dispersed and difficult "market" for research services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on the evolution of the baccalauréat examination in France citing reforms to the transitional baccaulauré in 1966 and 1967. Problems arise from attempts to adjust an examination indicating the history and evolution of education in the country. French Prime Minister, M. Georges Pompidou has outlined their plans for education which constitutes reform and a revision of the whole structure of advanced secondary and higher education relevant to policies on the democratization of education.

This article focuses on federal influences on educational policy. During the colonial period and for the first several decades of existence of the U.S. as a nation, formal education was essentially a local and a private concern. With the advent of Horace Mann and other exponents of public education in the early 19th century, the several states by constitutional and statutory provisions accepted responsibility for establishing and maintaining a system of free common schools. National influences on schools are both governmental and nongovernmental. Government has made many legislative laws regarding education. One could argue that most of these acts are not educational at all. The impact laws provided aid for school construction and operation to districts affected by federal installations. With the possible exception of the impact laws, which provide general aid to qualifying school districts, all of this legislation is categorical in nature and provides aid for specified programs only. Thus, the improved teaching of science and mathematics has been thought necessary to our defense, and the improvement of schools in our slum areas has been seen as essential to the regeneration of our cities.

This article focuses on the influence of politics and community decision making in education. It deals with the determinants of decision making and correlates the conflict and the dynamics of school boards. Court decisions on racial issues are tackled since this continue to stir political activity in educational matters. Federal legislation is also touched because of its significance on the implementation of education and it also concentrates on the political aspects of federal-local interaction in decision making.

This article discusses the legal status of teachers and its social implications on their professions in the U.S. The most extensively publicized feature of the teacher's legal status was the enactment of statutes requiring teachers to subscribe to oaths of allegiance or similar affirmations in several states of the country. There is a reference to judicial interpretations of teachers' tenure laws, and an inadequate one-page discussion of legal safeguards for freedom of teaching. The National Education Association found that twenty states have specific minimum salary standards, and that fourteen of these have in force statewide mandatory minimum-salary laws.

The article examines the impact of publish-or-perish policy in higher education in the U.S. Professors and administrators affected by the policy chose to stay away from the issue for the sake of their colleagues and the public. The reasons behind the creation of publish-or-perish policy needs to be examined, as well as its full implications for higher education. The publish-or-perish teaching results from a contemporary stereotyping in terms of acceptability of the types of communication among scholars and between scholars and the public at large.

The article examines a memorandum by politician W. E. Forster which presents suggestions for consideration in Framing the Education Bill for England. The memorandum has traditionally been regarded as the basis of the elementary education bill submitted to Parliament in February, 1870. Both T. Wemyss Reid, Forster's biographer, and David Roland, author of an extensive thesis on the 1870 Act and its aftermath, assumed that the first draft was submitted to the Cabinet. Reid included in his biography excerpts from the first draft which were excised from the second; Roland quoted the first draft in his thesis as if it were the only one. The material omitted from the second draft was concerned with two of the most controversial aspects of the education question, the relation of the state to religious instruction and the enforcement of school attendance. The first draft contained a well-argued critique of the former problem and provided a guide-line for dealing with it. It is informed that the changes made with regard to the attendance question had no effect on the future of the education bill.

The article focuses on the importance of infant education in Great Britain. The tone of a school and its standard of discipline would improve in proportion to its success. It would attract by degrees a superior class of children, and appeal to a more fastidious class of parent. The state of infant schools appears to be improving. Yet when the proportion of London under-fives at school was dropping to one of the country's lowest at ten percent where the infant school movement was strongest the attendance of infants was at its weakest. The educationists pointed out that the public elementary schools were not providing a suitable type of education for children below the age of five, and that in some instances the training given tended to dull the children's minds. Certainly the ending of fee-paying in 1891 would make public infant schools more attractive to parents. Presumably a combined sense of compulsory attendance and of the specifically educational benefits available was beginning to affect even the younger children and of course they would tend to accompany older brothers and sisters to the board school.

The article focuses on the role of political leader Richard Austen Butler in the education system in Great Britain. Butler, as a political figure is doubly rewarding, first as the originator of conservative compromise on social reform, then as an influential and controversial figure. There is, however a considerable body of evidence available to sketch in the background to his entry into politics and make an appreciation of his work for public education. The circumstances surrounding his appointment to the British Board of Education reveal a great deal, especially when associated with his subsequent career. His family had active and influential connections both with Cambridge University and the Conservative Party, for several generations. He made the most of this situation to obtain a first class degree, become President of the Cambridge Union and secure a fellowship at Corpus Christi College. In British public education there is a striking contrast to the high status accorded to academics, especially from the older universities, who are patently in no way contaminated with the system, and the low regard in which the practitioners in the schools themselves are held.

The article presents information on the development of the educational sociology in the in colleges of education in Great Britain. It is now possible to take sociology as a main subject in 50 colleges of education and at 29 of these it is possible to go on and offer the subject for the B. Ed. degree. A survey conducted by the British Sociological Association in 1968 reported that one quarter of the respondents gave sociology of education as a main interest. Many of the increasing number of sociologists trained in university departments of sociology go on to teach their subject at various levels within the educational system. It has been argued that the term educational sociology should refer to the discipline as practiced in the early years of its development when the emphasis was on the practical problems facing the teacher. Educational sociology is the applied branch of the subject where the concern is with solving practical problems which are likely to arise for the educationalist. Educational sociology has been given a normative orientation, being particularly concerned with solving problems, with fulfilling a social welfare role and with an emphasis on what seems to be sociologically significant.

The article discusses the problems of secondary schools which have been found to have inescapable consequences in the areas of organization in Great Britain. All linked systems of schools require regular functional meetings between heads, heads of subject departments, and sometimes between whole departments of cooperating schools. Continuity is always important in education. Task definition is extremely important and is at present a neglected aspect of educational studies. Without it, delegation may cause certain individuals to become seriously overloaded. Some knowledge of organization and management theory and practice has recently become important for all teachers, not only for heads, deputies and senior staff. Increasingly, all staff members need to know something of the problems of running large institutions so that they can help find solutions. The only fully effective organization is organization by consent, which means that all members need to understand how, and to what ends, the organization works.

The article presents information on the developments made in the Education Act of 1872 in Scotland. The Local Scotland Government Act of 1929 put an end to directly elected authorities and transferred the work to education committees of the county councils, where it remains. The efficiency of these bodies has since been increased by the 1945 Act, which made the appointment of Directors of Education mandatory, their freedom by the introduction of block grant in 1958. The main national body established by the Act was the Scotch Education Department, a branch of the institution presided over in London by the Committee of Council on Education. The system of financing education has remained as fixed by the Act-partly from taxes, partly from rates. Minor sources were gradually rationalized, with the abolition of fees in public schools and the reorganization of endowments. The fundamental arrangements for providing school places and checking their quality, for local and national education authorities, for financing public education, for ensuring the competency of teachers, for leaving a place for voluntary schools, for granting freedom to an individual's religious conscience operate in 1972 as they were established in 1872.

The article focuses on the role of local education authorities and teachers in education in Great Britain. Inspectability is an awkward, intractable word--not unlike inspection itself, some would add. Freedom from external inspection is, in fact, often taken to be the hallmark of university freedom in Great Britain. By "teacher" is understood, in this case, a teacher in a school maintained by the local education authority. Teachers in direct grant and independent schools are thus excluded. By "local authority" is meant any or all of the 62 County Councils and 83 County Borough Councils in England and Wales. It is the duty of local education authorities, under the 1944 Act, to provide for the physical, mental, moral and spiritual development of children in their areas of compulsory school age (at present from five to 15 years of age). Such education should be in accordance with the age, aptitude and ability of the child. The Minister of Education's job is to ensure that the local authority does this; but, within its own terms of reference under the Act, a local education authority, has wide power of policy-decision and its implementing.

The article focuses on the origins of full-time compulsory education at the age of five. Its purpose is to throw some light upon the origins of a situation that is patently not discussed as often as it ought to be. An exposition of the historical roots of an apparently time-hallowed arrangement, to which some vested interest may well attach, should facilitate an informed re-examination of it. Until a few years before the passing of the Forster Act, there had been little in the educational thought and practice of the 19th-century Great Britain to suggest that the age of five would constitute the dividing line between voluntary and universal education. Although comparatively few years have passed since the Education Bill became law, it is no longer an easy matter to trace its genesis. In the end, one is left with the deduction that the Forster Act deemed the downward extension of school age a practicable way of increasing the length of school life, and sought to protect from parental exploitation at home all children whose age made this a strong possibility, even if they were unlikely to find gainful employment outside. It appears certain, however, that it attached little importance to the point, and held no strong and decided views upon it.

The article presents an account of the creation and early growth of the Board of Education Act, 1899. The need for some central authority charged with the oversight of elementary, secondary and technical education had become very pressing by the end of the nineteenth century. Although various government departments offered the aid or guidance of the state to schools of most varieties, their efforts were uncoordinated, with the consequence that in some fields there was overlapping while in others neglect. So, the want of a more rational system of educational administration pressed hard. Thus in 1896, the government introduced an Education Bill with the twin aims of dealing with the problem of educational administration and relieving the financial plight of the Church schools. However, the bill encountered so much hostility that it was withdrawn by the government. The question of re-organizing the administrative structure could hardly be entirely abandoned, however, and at the beginning of 1898 a memorandum on this subject was submitted to the government. This memorandum marked the beginning of work on a new bill which eventually became the Board of Education Act, 1899 and which created for the first time a central authority responsible for the various fields of education.

The article examines the extent to which grammar schools were really engaged in the elementary education of the poor in Lancashire, England, during the period 1786-1840. The concept of grammar school is vaguer because it covers four related ideas, two of them sociological and two pedagogic, namely the education of the poor with its counterpart of reading, writing and arithmetic, and the education of the middle classes in classical and commercial subjects. There were indeed four views put forward in this period about what a grammar school was or should be. In 1820, as part of the general Parliamentary concern with charities, a bill was passed for giving permissive power to trustees to use grammar school trusts for the instruction of the poor in reading, writing and arithmetic. This led to a controversy between the liberal and the popular education had its counterpart oddly enough in the legal decisions on the function of the grammar school. In 1832, however, it was decided that writing and arithmetic might be taught on a classical endowment.

This article focuses on the current state of grammar schools in Great Britain by making a brief survey of their development since the beginning of the twentieth century. In the field of English education, it is generally asked whether a traditional institution like the grammar school is really fitted to meet the varying demands of a world in which the pace of change increases in both social and industrial organization. The debate about the implementation of a legislation in 1944 has caused a revival of interest in what happened in 1902, when large-scale provision first became possible for the education of the more able. During this period it was a commonplace to point out that the schools were preparing a disproportionate number of their pupils for the black-coated jobs. The maintained grammar schools, supposedly, have always had a bias towards mathematics and science, the subjects that can make a very good preparation for an industrial career. This became apparent as soon as the schools were encouraged to develop sixth form courses by the new grant system of 1917, by which each Advanced Course earned an additional grant of #x00A3;400 per annum. According to the author, in providing the technicians of the future the grammar schools are not doing too well, but there is no doubt whatever of the willingness of the schools to play their part in meeting the needs of a technological age.

This article focuses on various initiatives and developments brought by the Ministry of Education of Great Britain during its first ten years which was completed in August 1954. During that decade there were five ministers and three permanent secretaries; three miscellaneous provisions acts were passed; and the face of education was re-planned at an unparalleled rate and on an unparalleled scale. The Ministry of Education evolved from the Education Department of the 19th century and the Board of Education, which had existed since 1899. The Education Bill in its original form preserved the tradition of a Board and a President. The new bill imported a distinction between the minister and the Ministry which called in practice for a division of functions. The largest achievements of the bill were two: Firstly, it defined education as a series of stages in the child's life and thus put an end to the old distinction of "elementary" and "higher" with its Poor Law associations. Secondly, it re-planned the system of county and voluntary schools. The Special Services Branch of the Ministry covers a wide field embracing medical and dental services, the health and nutrition of pupils, and the provision of special educational treatment for the physically and mentally handicapped.

The article reviews several legislation addressing the funding of special education in the U.S. Its main purpose is to review approaches of funding for special education, the limitations of these methods and the responsibilities involved. The author argues that a dilemma has existed, namely adequacy and equity. Funds are insufficient and are distributed unequally, according to sentiments from court actions. She reviews the state's fiscal support procedure according to: 1) unit financing 2) weighted formula system 3) percentage reimbursement 4) personnel reimbursement 5) straight sum reimbursement and 6) excess cost formula.

The article presents a study which determines the implications of one legislative provision on the education of handicapped children in the private sector in New York. The study found out that there was a wide range of usage among school districts in the state of a provision which permits the positioning of handicapped children in private facilities as an alternative to providing services within the local public school system. And there is no proof that the variance of usage of the provision is associated with demographic or economic factors.

This article considers the advantages and problems of labeling and suggests that the controversy over to label or not label is not the real issue since some children will be hurt by either decision. The author proposes and discusses a 2 year special education contract which would mitigate the damaging effects of labels in children with mild handicaps.

Recent federal support programs for education in the United States have emphasized innovation and evaluation. Little attention has been given to the evaluation problem. Special education bears a special responsibility because it has been a favored area in recent federal legislation. Despite many difficult technical and psychological problems, efforts must be made to meet the rising problem of evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The future strength of the United States rests on the best possible education for all children. In 1963, Congress responded to the educational needs of handicapped children with the passage of significant legislation. As yet, Congress has not determined the role of the federal government in the education of the gifted. The author would welcome proposals for such participation from the profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the coordinated efforts of the community in vocational training for people with mental disabilities. The law and legislation in Minnesota plans to implement an educational service for children with mental disabilities. This law aims to educate retarded children to make him employable and independent. The plan will be based on research and on the opinions of the community and professional people. The community in Minneapolis works with various individuals, public groups, and agencies to support the social and personal problem associated with mental retardation.

The article examines the outlook of education and training for trainable mentally retarded children in the U.S. The state and local laws concerning the schooling of the mentally retarded have different definitions of mental retardation. Therefore, the school administrator must take the leadership to solicit all available resources in order to establish a long range planning for those who will need continuous direction. The school cannot solely tackle the problem confronting the team of community agencies.

The article presents several court decisions related to the education for the exceptional children from 1873 to 1950 in the U.S. In Massachusetts in 1873, a court ruled that actions pertaining to the education of exceptional children in public schools must be taken against the city or town and not against the school committee, which was upheld in 1901 when such action was brought by a parent demanding instruction in public schools for his child. In the case of Ward versus Flood in 1874, the court ruled that school committee acted in good faith in expelling the child who was affecting good order and discipline because the child displayed behaviors consisted of acts of neglect, tricks of playfulness, and inattention to study and regulations of the school.

The article reports that the Oklahoma colleges and universities have been developing teacher-education programs to implement the new and more flexible state-certification regulations to become effective on July 1, 1953. The Oklahoma Commission on Teacher Education and Certification has been requested by the State Board of Education to sponsor the approval of the teacher-education programs. Steps are also being taken to increase the minimum college preparation required for temporary-teaching certificates.